Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are frequent mycotoxins that may cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, estrogenic, or gastrointestinal effects. The aim of this study was to assess the exposure to and risk from AFB1, OTA, ZEN, and DON in 172 participants of the Maule Cohort (MAUCO) by a biomarker analysis in urine and to associate their exposure with food consumption and occupation. Mycotoxins in the first morning urine were analyzed by solid-phase extraction and quantified by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a mass–mass detector. Participants’ information regarding food consumption, occupation, and other characteristics was obtained from a baseline and 2-year follow-up survey of the cohort. The prevalence and mean levels of mycotoxins in the urine were as follows: DON 63%, 60.7 (±78.7) ng/mL; AFB1 8%, 0.3 (±0.3) ng/mL; α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) 4.1%, 41.8 (±115) ng/mL; β-ZEL 3.5%, 17.4 (±16.1) ng/mL; AFM1 2%, 1.8 (±1.0) ng/mL; OTA 0.6% (1/172), 1.3 ng/mL; and ZEN 0.6%, 1.1 ng/mL. These results were translated into exposures of DON, ZEN, and aflatoxins of public health concern. Participants who consumed coffee and pepper the day before had a significantly greater presence of DON (OR: 2.3, CI95 1.17–4.96) and total ZEL (OR: 14.7, CI95 3.1–81.0), respectively, in their urine. Additionally, we observed associations between the habitual consumption of beer and DON (OR: 2.89, CI95 1.39–6.42). Regarding the levels of mycotoxins and the amount of food consumed, we found correlations between DON and nuts (p = 0.003), total ZEL and cereals (p = 0.01), and aflatoxins with capsicum powder (p = 0.03) and walnuts (p = 0.03). Occupation did not show an association with the presence of mycotoxins in urine.
Highlights
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced naturally by some species of filamentous fungi, such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium [1,2]
Exposure to mycotoxins has been measured in an indirect way by an estimated daily intake (EDI), which is based on consumption and the mycotoxins’ concentrations in foods [7], as well as by a direct exposure assessment utilizing a probable daily intake (PDI); the latter is based on biomarker measurements in biological fluids, such as urine and blood, and the excretion rate of the mycotoxins [8]
This study presents new information about mycotoxin exposure in Chile
Summary
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced naturally by some species of filamentous fungi, such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium [1,2]. B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON), causing carcinogenic, mutagenic, estrogenic, and gastrointestinal effects in humans and animals [5] Human exposure to these mycotoxins occurs predominantly through the consumption of contaminated foods [6]. Exposure to mycotoxins has been measured in an indirect way by an estimated daily intake (EDI), which is based on consumption and the mycotoxins’ concentrations in foods [7], as well as by a direct exposure assessment utilizing a probable daily intake (PDI); the latter is based on biomarker measurements in biological fluids, such as urine and blood, and the excretion rate of the mycotoxins [8] This method is the most accurate and has been used to estimate individual mycotoxin intakes, including all sources of exposure [9]. Urinary biomarkers are better indicators for short-term variations in exposure, as blood biomarkers may not reflect this because of the protein-binding properties of some mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxin and OTA) [8,11]
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