Assessment of industrial wastewater for potentially toxic elements, human health (dermal) risks, and pollution sources: A case study of Gadoon Amazai industrial estate, Swabi, Pakistan

Abstract

In this study, industrial wastewater and groundwater were comparatively investigated for their physicochemical properties, concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), human health risks and pollution source(s). Every month, 34 wastewater samples and 26 groundwater samples were collected, for a duration of one year. The results showed that the physicochemical parameters and concentrations of PTEs in the industrial wastewater exceeded the maximum permissible limits of Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (2000). Specifically, it was found that total dissolved solids (5%), total suspended solids (190%), chemical oxygen demand (107%), five-days biochemical oxygen demand (5.7 times), grease/oil (27.1 times), Fe (67%), Zn (29%), Mn (32%), Cu (27%), Ni (16%), Cr (8%), Pb (106%), and Cd (80%) were higher than the permissible limits. The carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic dermal health risks for wastewater irrigation group were significantly higher than the groundwater irrigation group. The hazard index of irrigation with industrial wastewater was 180 times higher than the groundwater. The principal component analysis indicated that industry was the main polluting source. The cluster analysis results of all PTEs (except Fe) were found in the same clade in the dendrogram, which showed a strong similarity within the monthly data set of the whole year. The study recommends using adjacent groundwater instead of industrial wastewater for irrigation purposes.