Abstract
The implementation of targeted and nontargeted chemical screening analysis in combination with in vitro and organism-level bioassays is a prerequisite for a more holistic monitoring of water quality in the future. For chemical analysis, little or no sample enrichment is often sufficient, while bioanalysis often requires larger sample volumes at a certain enrichment factor for conducting comprehensive bioassays on different endpoints or further effect-directed analysis (EDA). To avoid logistic and technical issues related to the storage and transport of large volumes of water, sampling would benefit greatly from onsite extraction. This study presents a novel onsite large volume solid phase extraction (LVSPE) device tailored to fulfill the requirements for the successful effect-based and chemical screening of water resources and complies with available international standards for automated sampling devices. Laboratory recovery experiments using 251 organic compounds in the log D range from -3.6 to 9.4 (at pH7.0) spiked into pristine water resulted in acceptable recoveries and from 60 to 123% for 159 out of 251 substances. Within a European-wide demonstration program, the LVSPE was able to enrich compounds in concentration ranges over three orders of magnitude (1ngL-1 to 2400ngL-1). It was possible to discriminate responsive samples from samples with no or only low effects in a set of six different bioassays (i.e. acetylcholinesterase and algal growth inhibition, androgenicity, estrogenicity, fish embryo toxicity, glucocorticoid activity). The LVSPE thus proved applicable for onsite extraction of sufficient amounts of water to investigate water quality thoroughly by means of chemical analysis and effect-based tools without the common limitations due to small sample volumes.
Highlights
This study presents a novel onsite large volume solid phase extraction (LVSPE) device tailored to fulfill the requirements for the successful effect-based and chemical screening of water resources and complies with available international standards for automated sampling devices
In Europe, the protection of natural water resources is regulated by the Water Framework Directive (WFD; European Union, 2000) and the Groundwater Daughter Directive to WFD (GWD; European Union, 2006) that are implemented in European member states' legislations and international river basin management
This study demonstrated LVSPE as a promising tool for the high quality sampling and extraction of pollutants for chemical and effect-based screening of water resources in field applications
Summary
In Europe, the protection of natural water resources is regulated by the Water Framework Directive (WFD; European Union, 2000) and the Groundwater Daughter Directive to WFD (GWD; European Union, 2006) that are implemented in European member states' legislations and international river basin management. Modern chemical analytical instrumentation allows for the analysis of small water volumes with no or only low sample enrichment for most of the typical water pollutants (Bahlmann et al, 2015; Berset et al, 2010; Brack et al, 2015, 2016; Dyer et al, 2004; Fernández-Ramos et al, 2014; Seitz et al, 2006), while the analysis of some priority substances with very low EQS values as well as in vivo and in vitro tests may require greater enrichment and larger water volumes (Neale et al, 2015; OECD, 2004; OECD, 2012)
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