Abstract
Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii are protozoan parasites that have been highlighted as emerging foodborne pathogens by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization. According to the European Food Safety Authority, 4786 foodborne and waterborne outbreaks were reported in Europe in 2016, of which 0.4% were attributed to parasites including Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Trichinella. Until 2016, no standardized methods were available to detect Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma (oo)cysts in food. Therefore, no regulation exists regarding these biohazards. Nevertheless, considering their low infective dose, ingestion of foodstuffs contaminated by low quantities of these three parasites can lead to human infection. To evaluate the risk of protozoan parasites in food, efforts must be made towards exposure assessment to estimate the contamination along the food chain, from raw products to consumers. This requires determining: (i) the occurrence of infective protozoan (oo)cysts in foods, and (ii) the efficacy of control measures to eliminate this contamination. In order to conduct such assessments, methods for identification of viable (i.e. live) and infective parasites are required. This review describes the methods currently available to evaluate infectivity and viability of G. duodenalis cysts, Cryptosporidium spp. and T. gondii oocysts, and their potential for application in exposure assessment to determine the presence of the infective protozoa and/or to characterize the efficacy of control measures. Advantages and limits of each method are highlighted and an analytical strategy is proposed to assess exposure to these protozoa.
Highlights
Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. are enteric parasites of humans and various other mammals [205,206]
This paper aims to describe the different methods currently available to determine the infectivity and viability of G. duodenalis cysts, and Cryptosporidium spp. and T. gondii oocysts
Animal models, including calves, neonatal mice, pigs and lambs, have shown that Cryptosporidium spp. and strains vary in their ability to cause symptomatic infections in various hosts
Summary
Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. are enteric parasites of humans and various other mammals [205,206]. Cryptosporidium spp. and T. gondii oocysts can be encountered in different terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems where they can persist for months, possibly years. These parasites are extremely resistant to many chemical and physical inactivation agents [59]. In 2016 in Europe, 4786 food-borne outbreaks, including waterborne outbreaks, were reported, of which 0.4% were due to parasites including Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Trichinella [60] This number may be underestimated considering the large number of outbreaks where the causative agent remains unknown (36%). Concerning T. gondii, food transmission is more likely through ingestion of cysts in raw or undercooked meat but this is considered to be a less predominant source of infection in certain areas or populations [31,201]
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