Abstract
BackgroundThe chemical composition of precipitation was assessed in 27 European countries from 2000 to 2017, offering a general point of view on the rainwater chemistry in Europe, contributing to a larger understanding of air pollution and atmospheric chemistry.ResultsThe volume-weighted mean concentrations (VWM) were calculated, showing the relative dominance of SO42− and Cl−, explaining the acidic and slightly acidic pH values that ranged from 4.19 to 5.82 over Europe. The VWM concentrations of ionic species measured in rainwater usually followed the SO42 − > Cl− > Na+ > NH4+ > NO3− > H+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ > HCO3− downward order, with small exceptions, depending on the industrial activity or legal framework of a particular area. Fractional acidity showed that ~ 69% of the inorganic acidity in precipitation is neutralised, whilst neutralisation factors showed that Na+ and NH4+ contributed the most to the neutralising process. The relationship between acidic and neutralising compounds was further examined by calculating the ionic ratios. Wet deposition rates showed the dominance of acidic compounds over neutralising ones, reflecting the climatic influences and the local and regional economic characteristics of different regions from Europe. Origins of major ions in rainwater were examined using the sea salt and non-sea salt fractions, crustal and marine enrichment factors, correlation analysis and the Principal Component Analysis, showing the significant influence of anthropogenic sources (industry, agriculture, traffic). Natural sources (maritime, terrestrial) also play a major role in influencing the precipitation chemistry of the European continent.ConclusionsThe main conclusion of this study regarding the precipitation chemistry of the European continent during the studied period is represented by the relative homogenous distribution of the analysed chemical species, which is most likely due to the unitary economic development and to the implementation of common European policies in the field of environmental protection. Since the pH is still acidic due to the anthropogenic emissions, more attention should be given to the implementation of environmental legislation, especially in non-European Union countries or in countries that joined recently.
Highlights
The chemical composition of precipitation was assessed in 27 European countries from 2000 to 2017, offering a general point of view on the rainwater chemistry in Europe, contributing to a larger understanding of air pollution and atmospheric chemistry
Chemical composition of rainwater To assess the ionic composition of precipitation, the volume-weighted mean (VWM) along with statistical analysis including standard deviation, standard error, mean, minimum and maximum was performed in case of all 27 countries from Europe
The chemical compositions of rainwater, pH variations, acidifying and neutralising processes, wet deposition rates and source contributions were determined in 27 European countries over a period of 18 years
Summary
The chemical composition of precipitation was assessed in 27 European countries from 2000 to 2017, offering a general point of view on the rainwater chemistry in Europe, contributing to a larger understanding of air pollution and atmospheric chemistry. Rainwater chemistry was intensely studied worldwide over the past 30 years [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10], since by determining the chemical composition of precipitation the contributing sources can be identified, understanding the local and regional dispersion of pollutants and their potential effect on the environment through scavenging and deposition processes [11]. The present study assesses the European precipitation chemistry of the last 18 years, during 2000–2017, contributing to better understand some environmental issues, related to air pollution and the chemical composition of the atmosphere. It is projected that in 2020 only 4% of the European ecosystem area will exceed the acidification critical loads if current legislation is fully implemented [15]
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