Assessing the mitigation potential of environmental impacts from sustainability strategies on steel construction value chain: a case study on two steel products in Italy

Anas s.p.a. – the Italian company providing maintenance and construction of main roads and highways – has evaluated the use of a LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) based EPD (Environmental Product Declaration) as an environmental sustainability assessment and communication tool for road infrastructures. The Lombardia Region’s Department of Anas s.p.a. has started in 2013 the creation of the EPD in the International EPD® System for the new bridge over the river Po, near Piacenza, in Northern Italy. The EPD has been verified by an independent accredited certification body in 2015 and it is the first verified EPD for a road bridge in Italy. The goal of the LCA study was to determine the life cycle environmental impacts of the new bridge over its expected lifetime, calculated for unit of length of the bridge, according to the requirements of the International EPD® System, one of the best known programmes for type III environmental declarations operating in accordance with ISO 14025. As a first step the Product Category Rules (PCR), defining the rules and requirements for EPDs of a certain product category, have been created for bridges and elevated highways. The calculated environmental performances of the bridge over its life cycle, from raw material acquisition to operation and maintenance phases, show that raw material acquisition, and in particular steel production, has the greatest impact, contributing from 70% to 84% of all environmental indicators, while the environmental impacts of construction phase (energy use, water use, emissions, wastes) are not extremely relevant. The potential environmental impact per declared unit are reported for the following environmental impact categories, according to PCR: emission of greenhouse gases, emission of gases that contribute to the creation of ground level ozone, emission of acidifying substances, emission of substances to water contributing to oxygen depletion and waste production, resources use, energy use.

Purpose Missing data are a fundamental challenge in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). A promising way to address such gaps is the direct use of already calculated environmental impact assessments of upstream products. Although companies increasingly publish environmental information like Environmental Product Declarations (EPD), there is still limited research on integrating those emission factors directly as LCA results within standard LCA software to ensure seamless accessibility. Methods This paper proposes a novel method that integrates aggregated emission factors from environmental product declarations (EPD) into LCI. The method includes reverse calculation and proxy selection. Thus, proxies represent ecosphere flows which allow inventory result calculation and characterization during life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). The method generates LCI databases from emission factors with corresponding proxies, which provide these emission factors as LCA results within common LCA programs. Results and discussion The approach is demonstrated by integrating the ökobaudat (OBD) database – containing EPDs - into the LCA software Brightway. An example of LCA calculations with data from conventional and EPD databases using Brightway is provided. This example illustrates how data gaps can be effectively filled in a user-friendly way by simultaneously using data with and without supply chain information. Conclusions The feasibility of incorporating data without supply chain information in conventional LCA software is demonstrated. The developed method increases user-friendliness, as only one LCA modelling and calculation is required when using data with and without process-based information simultaneously. Additionally, the presented method is not restricted to a specific set of data sources, emission factors, or LCA programs and is generally applicable.

Until recently, reducing the energy required to service a building (the operational energy) was the main aim of controlling carbon emissions from the built environment. It is now recognised that the energy required to make a building (the embodied energy) also has a crucial role in creating a net zero carbon future. The methodologies for quantifying embodied carbon are less developed than those for operational carbon, and more research is required to refine the embodied carbon metrics used when a building’s whole-life carbon emissions are calculated in a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). One such metric is the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD), a document which can be used in different countries to quantify a product's environmental performance. EPDs are crucial data for conducting an LCA study of a building. However, despite recent efforts to standardise them, there are still inconsistencies between EPDs produced by different countries or manufacturers, even for materials with similar thermal and physical properties. This study considered some of the reasons for variations in EPDs for one product type, expanded polystyrene insulation (EPS). Factors such as (i) the LCA databases and software generators used for the EPDs, (ii) material mixes and manufacturing methods, (iii) country energy production mixes, and (iv) transportation distance from material source to the factory were considered in the analysis. As a case study, this paper examined the effects of selecting different EPDs for expanded polystyrene insulation on the final LCA results from the retrofit of a mid-rise residential building in Turkiye. Differences in EPDs demonstrated a fourfold difference between the highest and lowest upfront carbon impact results of building retrofit. This size of discrepancy indicates the need to choose the most appropriate EPD for a building/location when performing an LCA. Practical Applications Selecting an EPD when conducting an LCA for a new building or retrofit is generally left to the assessor’s judgment and knowledge, which varies greatly depending on the assessor’s background, especially in the construction sector. This study suggests an informed decision-making method over an example of EPS insulation material when the EPD options were none or limited to building locations like Turkiye.

One of the most important tools in assessing rigid pavement design sustainability (or environmental impact) is a lifecycle assessment (LCA), which may be applied in any stage of a product’s lifecycle from cradle to grave, such as pavements. Although LCA was the focus of much research and codification by organizations such as the International Organization for Standards and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, limitations exist, such as a) LCA is time consuming; and b) the used data may become outdated, inaccurate, biased, incomplete, and/or expensive to use. These limitations are not a deficiency in LCA as a tool, but in the manner in which various researchers apply the limitations differently. The objective of this study is to develop a methodology to assess rigid pavement sustainability using Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) as a quantification tool. EPDs are defined as quantified environmental data for a product, based on a pre-set category of parameters, defined in the ISO 14040 series of standards (ISO 14025). EPDs were established to homogenize assumptions while performing an LCA. In fact, EPDs follow the same LCA procedure for quantifying the environmental impact. However, the method used to issue an EPD importantly guarantees consistency in the data collection process, thus enabling a comparison between products by fulfilling the same function as well as limiting the discrepancies that could exist when different researchers perform an LCA. To achieve this objective, a new pavement design framework was developed to incorporate this sustainability evaluation criterion. After the design passes the technical evaluation, the framework will assess pavement sustainability outside the scope. The framework will enable alternative design comparison between various products, as well as product benchmarking that uses EPD as a data source. The scope includes a cradle to gate analysis (using EPD), as well as the transportation stage from the manufacturer’s location to project location. The transportation stage from the manufacturer’s location to project location was assessed using LCA. Various case studies will be provided to validate the new framework. The framework was used to assess the total sustainability score of various alternatives in terms of which one has a higher/ lower score. However, these differences were insignificant. Results also proved that the transportation stage represents an important criteria, and the total environmental impact was sensitive to a change in this factor.

The Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) method and the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) each play a crucial role in reducing buildings’ embodied environmental impacts. EPDs provide the validated and geographically representative data necessary to conduct an LCA. However, the development of EPDs in the European context is still irregular. Countries such as Germany and France have many EPDs for construction products, while other countries, such as Spain, have a limited number of EPDs and more than one operator programme, which is pointed out in the literature as a possible limiting factor for comparing results. This study aimed to examine the use of construction product EPDs manufactured in Spain, to then use as a data source to conduct a building LCA. We analysed the comparability of the results among the different EPD programmes and investigated to what extent the use of Spainߣs geographically representative construction product EPDs can contribute to conducting a building LCA, including all the materials and products that compose a building, and covering all the building life-cycle stages (product, construction, use, and end-of-life). The results showed that plasterboard and thermal insulation products have the highest numbers of EPDs in different EPD programmes. The case study analysis showed that 20% of the construction products that compose a building can potentially use these EPDs as a data source to conduct a building LCA, and 89% of those product categories include at least the product, use, or end-of-life stage modules. Finally, recommendations and challenges to improve LCA development in the architecture, engineering, construction, and operation industries were included.

The use of wood and timber products in the construction of buildings is repeatedly pointed towards as a mean for lowering the environmental footprint. With several countries preparing regulation for life cycle assessment of buildings, practitioners from industry will presumably look to the pool of data on wood products found in environmental product declarations (EPDs). However, the EPDs may vary broadly in terms of reporting and results. This study provides a comprehensive review of 81 third-party verified EN 15804 EPDs of cross laminated timber (CLT), glulam, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and timber. The 81 EPDs represent 86 different products and 152 different product scenarios. The EPDs mainly represent European production, but also North America and Australia/New Zealand productions are represented. Reported global warming potential (GWP) from the EPDs vary within each of the investigated product categories, due to density of the products and the end-of-life scenarios applied. Median results per kg of product, excluding the biogenic CO2, are found at 0.26, 0.24, and 0.17 kg CO2e for CLT, glulam, and timber, respectively. Results further showed that the correlation between GWP and other impact categories is limited. Analysis of the inherent data uncertainty showed to add up to ±41% to reported impacts when assessed with an uncertainty method from the literature. However, in some of the average EPDs, even larger uncertainties of up to 90% for GWP are reported. Life cycle assessment practitioners can use the median values from this study as generic data in their assessments of buildings. To make the EPDs easier to use for practitioners, a more detailed coordination between EPD programs and their product category rules is recommended, as well as digitalization of EPD data.

The growing phase of emerging economy countries requires the implementation of environmental assessment tools in the building sector. The use of environmental product declarations (EPDs) has risen in developed countries as one of the main tools for environmental assessment. However, at what point should developing countries follow the EPD implementation strategies used by developed countries? What are the strengths and weaknesses of EPD in the emerging economy context, and what threats and opportunities does it face within the building sector? This work aims to answer these questions by taking Mexico as a case study. A bibliographical review was conducted to determine the key elements for EPD development in the building sector in other countries, especially those in Europe, where EPDs originated. The review also examined the experience and perspective of other countries that are starting to contemplate this type of ecolabel as an option for environmental assessment within their own building sectors, as well as industry perspectives on EPDs, especially those of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Then, Mexico’s situation in regard to these key elements was examined, with a special focus on the main stakeholders detected: government and industry. Finally, after a contrast analysis was conducted between the developed countries and Mexico, the strengths and weaknesses of EPDs in the emerging economy context and the threats and opportunities within the building sector were determined. The use of EPDs in Europe has largely followed a normative and legislative pattern. Moreover, it has been the main data source for building environmental assessment schemes, and there is a strong life cycle assessment (LCA) platform that contributes to EPD development. Furthermore, there is a European tendency toward making the use of EPDs mandatory. However, there is a very different reality in emergent economy countries. In these countries, social housing represents a major part of the vision of the building sector, so it is taken as an initial approach to EPD development. In Mexico, there is a solid legislative framework in which EPDs could be implemented, and there is a variety of environmental assessment housing programs into which EPDs could be integrated. Nevertheless, there is an institutional void that has prevented the incorporation of the life cycle approach into the national strategy of sustainability in the building sector. Moreover, SMEs might not have the technical and financial capacity to develop EPD. This analysis has proved that EPD implementation in emerging countries mainly depends on two aspects: Firstly, it must be a shared vision of sustainability between government and industry, in which there is a correspondence between the sustainability objectives of the two parties and SMEs have the ability to contribute toward their achievement. Secondly, a solid platform of knowledge that supports LCA in the building sector is necessary, and it must involve a strong relationship between government, academia, and stakeholders.

Environmental data on construction materials are recognized as a foundational resource to support emissions reduction in the building sector. Over the past five years, Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) have grown fourfold, expanding both in volume and digital accessibility as essential Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) instruments. However, a gap remains between actual industry conditions and theoretical sustainability pathways, underscoring the importance of industry data analysis to bridge this divide. This study adopts an industry-oriented approach to benchmark EPD data, focusing on two key construction materials, selecting Italian products as a case study. By collecting manufacturers’ EPDs with their digital formats, this analysis compares product LCA results across stages A, B, and C in terms of multiple impact indicators. The research aims to define the role of each LCA stage and the relevance of multiple impact categories, providing actionable insights for stakeholders—including policymakers, designers, and material suppliers. Additionally, this benchmark highlights critical limitations in current EPDs, such as insufficient information in digital formats and overly generalized scenario assumptions in certain stages, which can lead to underestimated environmental impacts. These findings reflect ongoing challenges in establishing a robust, industry-reflective database that fully captures real-world data for LCA of buildings applications and circular practices. Finally, the study offers recommendations in enriching digital EPD information and suggests that this industry-oriented approach could be extended across broader EU contexts, helping to translate idealized theoretical strategies into actionable improvements.

Integration between BIM and EPDs: Evaluation of the main difficulties and proposal of a framework based on ISO 19650:2018

Environmental product declaration (EPD) is a valuable data source for building sustainability assessment. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a critical element of EPD development, and it strongly impacts the reliability of the overall EPD environmental data. The increasing number of published EPDs necessitates a thorough examination of the challenges associated with LCA for EPD development to improve the quality assurance of EPDs. This study applied a mixed research approach, including a systematic literature review, focus group discussion and questionnaire survey to evaluate the challenges in LCA implementation for EPD development. The questionnaire administered to experts from 43 countries globally was analysed using qualitative and quantitative analytical techniques. The analysis showed that 73 % of the respondents are highly concerned about the data quality of LCA in EPD development. The study further revealed twenty-seven (27) significant challenges classified using exploratory factor analysis into seven groups ([1] Data Paucity, [2] Resource-intensive, [3] Data and Research, [4] Knowledge, [5] Methodological Limitations and People, [6] Technology, and [7] Data Integrity). The highly ranked challenges based on mean ranking include “Problems with data availability and quality for LCA”, “Lack of transparency in some of the existing LCA database and tools”, “Lack of country-specific inventory for LCA”, “The complexity and lack of knowledge about the uncertainty of data used in LCA” and “Lack of in-depth understanding and awareness of LCA”. The study also proposed strategies to resolve the challenges and holds vital implications for stakeholders within EPD development. In conclusion, it is observed that LCA for EPD development still faces significant challenges that require a tailored approach to improve the quality of LCA in EPD development.

Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are fundamental components within building projects. LCA is critical in building projects’ sustainability. The integration of BIM has the potential to enhance the LCA process, leading to better outcomes. Design for Deconstruction (DfD) study on minimizing, reusing, and recycling of building materials is closely linked. This study aims to evaluate and compare the findings obtained from the E-tool LCD and Tally LCA add-in tools; both used as BIM-based LCA tools. This paper outlines the overarching approach to implementing a process-based LCA for a steel building, explicitly emphasising the many processes the building undergoes during its life cycle. The LCA add-in tools, namely e-tool LCD and Tally, have been chosen to discern the disparities in the LCA outcomes resulting from using Environmental Product Declaration (EPD databases that vary across various regions. The input data, system boundaries, and LCA scope remained consistent throughout the LCA procedures. Global Warming Potential values obtained from the manufacturing module developed by e-tool LCD were included in a case study. A case study of steel structure is used to implement the LCA add-in tools. The discussion also addressed the challenges of enhancing interoperability in contemporary BIM-based LCA procedures. The study revealed that using EPD databases with regional variations notably impacts LCA outcomes. Consequently, the compatibility assessment in BIM-based LCA procedures yielded value innovation, efficiency, and distinctiveness.Furthermore, it was determined that BIM-LCA procedures resulted in notable distinctions compared to conventional LCA methods. These distinctions included enhanced convenience of application, increased efficiency in terms of time and resources, and higher levels of accuracy.

The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been applied in the construction sector since the 1990s and is now more and more embedded in European public policies, e.g., for Environmental Product Declaration regulation or for building labeling schemes. As far as the authors know, these initiatives mainly rely on background impact data of building products provided by different databases’ providers. The new product-specific and company-specific EPD data allow having more than one data for describing a building material. But are these new databases really displaying similar LCA results compared to generic databases? Does it depend on which impact category (e.g., global warming, acidification, toxicity) is considered? To answer these research questions, this paper assesses numerical and methodological differences of two existing LCA databases for building LCAs: the ecoinvent generic database and one Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) database developed in France. After reviewing the main assumptions of these databases, numerical values of environmental impact are compared for 28 building materials using Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) indicators of the EN 15804 standard calculated based on cradle-to-gate ecoinvent and EPD Life Cycle Inventories (LCI). Global results at the database level indicate deviations of different magnitudes depending on the LCIA indicators and the building materials. While indicators correlated to fossil fuel consumption, such as the ADP, the GWP, and the primary energy demand, exhibit a small deviation (approximately 25 %), other indicators, such as the photochemical ozone formation (POCP), radioactive waste, and ADP elements, are found to be more variable between EPD and generic data (sometimes by more than 100 %). Three indicators are found to be systematically different between EPD and generic data (i.e., the EPD value being either higher or lower for all materials). Similarly, five building materials show systematic differences for all LCIA indicators. Specific deviations for one indicator and one material are also reported. The application of the two databases on three building LCA case studies (brick, reinforced concrete, and timber frame structures) identifies deviations due to the most influential materials. Current generic and EPD databases can present very different values at the database scale which depend on the type of environmental indicator. For building LCA results, the situation is different as generally speaking a limited number of materials controlled the impacts. Finally, recommendations are presented for each environmental indicator to improve the consistency of the building assessment from generic to product- and country-specific information.

<abstract> <p>Development of Environmental Product Declarations (EPD)s used for green marketing, specification, procurement, certification and green building rating systems are important for documenting and understanding product environmental performance. Considering such applications any misleading of stakeholders has serious legal ramifications. Various studies have highlighted EPD veracity depends mainly on the data quality of underpinning life cycle assessment (LCA). This paper compares data quality across polyester product case studies, literature surveys and EPDs. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) results are presented and interpreted. Surveys show recycled polyester fibre results are most sensitive to melt spinning energy data which varies over a wide range. The case studies compare results from median, lower and upper energy use in melt spinning. The work highlights that, accurate, clear definitions and vocabulary is as vital for specific foreground process data as it is for generic background supply chain data. This is to avoid misconceptions and mismatched assumptions in respect of EPD data quality and incorrect acceptance of inadequate charting of all essential processes. If product-specific accurate data is inaccessible, EPD options include presenting impact assessment results from LCI of best and worst-case scenarios. This is preferable to legal risks of using junk data that misleads stakeholders in marketing. General recommendations are presented for LCA practitioners to improve EPD data quality and accuracy. These include using multiple data sources to avoid reliance on any single database. Data also needs to be verified by a third-party with industry expertise independent of the specific manufacturer. It recommends using suitable, comprehensive and specific product-related scenarios for data development in any EPD.</p> </abstract>

Feeding a growing, increasingly affluent population while limiting environmental pressures of food production is a central challenge for society. Understanding the location and magnitude of food production is key to addressing this challenge because pressures vary substantially across food production types. Applying data and models from life cycle assessment with the methodologies for mapping cumulative environmental impacts of human activities (hereafter cumulative impact mapping) provides a powerful approach to spatially map the cumulative environmental pressure of food production in a way that is consistent and comprehensive across food types. However, these methodologies have yet to be combined. By synthesizing life cycle assessment and cumulative impact mapping methodologies, we provide guidance for comprehensively and cumulatively mapping the environmental pressures (e.g., greenhouse gas emissions, spatial occupancy, and freshwater use) associated with food production systems. This spatial approach enables quantification of current and potential future environmental pressures, which is needed for decision makers to create more sustainable food policies and practices.

Use of environmental product declarations (EPDs) of pavement materials in the United States of America (U.S.A.) to ensure environmental impact reductions