Abstract
This paper presents a life cycle assessment for three stationary energy storage systems (ESS): lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery, vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), and liquid air energy storage (LAES). The global warming potential (GWP) is assessed in relation to uncertainties in usage of the storage, use-phase energy input, cell replacement, and round-trip efficiency parameters. Relative climate change mitigation potential in comparison with equivalent diesel electric and natural gas generation is discussed, as is the effect of recycling at end of life. With variations in input electricity source, recycling, and efficiency, the life cycle global warming potential for LFP ranges from 185 to 440 kg CO2 eq/MWh, for VRFB from 121 to 443 kg CO2 eq/MWh, and for LAES from 48 to 203 kg CO2 eq/MWh. In all cases, there are climate change mitigation benefits compared to fossil fuel alternatives. Use of renewable energy for charging and operation, ease of component recycling/reuse, and reduced parts replacement is shown to reduce GWP. The climate change mitigation potential of ESS for electricity grid operation is further enhanced by increasing use of the storage assets. Recycling of ESS is shown to reduce terrestrial acidification, freshwater eutrophication, and particulate matter impacts. Reduced ozone depletion potential for VRFB and LFP can be achieved by reducing nafion and PVDF components, respectively.
Highlights
Given the increasing relevance of electrochemical and thermo-mechanical technologies, this paper examines three energy storage options that are being considered for electricity grid support services: (1) lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery, (2) vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), and (3) liquid air energy storage (LAES) systems
Tabulated data on all 17 impact categories is provided in the Supporting Information
For all three energy storage systems (ESS), increased utilization rates reduce impacts per MWh of electricity supplied to the electricity system
Summary
Global decarbonization, embodied in the United Nations Paris Agreement 2016, requires that electricity grids are increasingly made up of intermittent generators (wind and solar photovoltaics) and generators less flexible (nuclear and biomass) than natural gas generators.[1] Many of the current means for balancing and managing flexibility in the electricity system to manage such an electricity grid natural gas generators, diesel electric generators and pumped water storage are either direct emitters of greenhouse gases (GHG) or spatially constrained. New forms of energy storage will be relied upon for short-term operating reserve capacity, frequency response, and demand management services. Any assessments of storage devices need to consider upstream resource consumption and operational energy losses (with subsequent GHG emissions)[2,3] when evaluating the net contribution they can have to environmentally sustainable development, in relation to meeting climate change mitigation targets
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