Abstract
The material use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is widely discussed in public and scientific discourse. Cathodes of state-of-the-art LIBs are partially comprised of high-priced raw materials mined under alarming ecological and social circumstances. Moreover, battery manufacturers are searching for cathode chemistries that represent a trade-off between low costs and an acceptable material criticality of the comprised elements while fulfilling the performance requirements for the respective application of the LIB. This article provides an assessment of the substitutability of common LIB cathode chemistries (NMC 111, −532, −622, −811, NCA 3%, −9%, LMO, LFP, and LCO) for five major fields of application (traction batteries, stationary energy storage systems, consumer electronics, power-/garden tools, and domestic appliances). Therefore, we provide a tailored methodology for evaluating the substitutability of products or components and critically reflect on the results. Outcomes show that LFP is the preferable cathode chemistry while LCO obtains the worst rating for all fields of application under the assumptions made (as well as the weighting of the considered categories derived from an expert survey). The ranking based on the substitutability score of the other cathode chemistries varies per field of application. NMC 532, −811, −111, and LMO are named recommendable types of cathodes.
Highlights
Tackling climate change and decarbonizing the economy and society may be considered as some of the greatest challenges of this century
Outcomes show that LFP is the preferable cathode chemistry while Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) obtains the worst rating for all fields of application under the assumptions made
The ranking based on the substitutability score of the other cathode chemistries varies per field of application
Summary
Tackling climate change and decarbonizing the economy and society may be considered as some of the greatest challenges of this century. The European Union aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 [2]. This results in massive pressure for technology development and applications in industries. Electrification will be the key measure for reaching the climate targets This results in a significantly increasing demand for batteries. Traction batteries for electric vehicles represent a huge amount of potential for achieving climate goals, as road transport is responsible for approximately 15% of global CO2 emissions [4]. Electrified transport in combination with a low-carbon energy supply can reduce these CO2 emissions significantly. The International Energy Agency (IEA) even states that the CO2 emissions from road transport may be reduced to zero for light commercial vehicles, passenger cars, and buses by 2070 [6]. Batteries can be used as stationary energy storage by private, commercial, or utility users, and balance wind or solar energy shortages and contribute to energy flexibility [7]
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