Abstract
This work examines the use of physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) modeling to assess exposure to the most abundant disinfection by-product (DBP), chloroform (TCM), to be found in indoor swimming pools. Real exposure scenarios including environmental (water and air levels) and biological (alveolar air or blood levels) data extracted from the literature were simulated. Predicted biological data matched up well with the reported actual levels, thereby confirming the reliability of this approach. Relative contributions of inhalation and dermal absorption to the total body burden were estimated and compared to the inconsistent results of reported studies. The PBTK simulations served to explain this inconsistency, suggesting that the prevalence of each pathway depends on environmental concentrations and on the ratio between air and water levels in particular. Likewise, comparisons between 24-h typical household and typical 1- or 2-h swimming pool exposure scenarios point to the preponderance of the latter.
Highlights
Chloroform (TCM) is by far the most abundant drinking water contaminant among disinfection by-products (DBPs)
As a matter of fact, numerous factors related to technical requirements or individual behaviors can contribute to increasing swimming pool exposure to these chemical contaminants, in particular their formation in high quantities and their absorption by the human body (Zwiener et al, 2007)
The use of physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) modeling to assess additional or separate exposure to TCM resulting from swimming pool attendance is worth further exploring
Summary
Chloroform (TCM) is by far the most abundant drinking water contaminant among disinfection by-products (DBPs). It belongs to the category of the trihalomethanes (THMs) that raise public health concerns, given their potential adverse effects (i.e., carcinogenicity and reprotoxicity) (Grazuleviciene et al, 2011; Grellier et al, 2010; Nieuwenhuijsen et al, 2009; Tardiff, Carson, & Ginevan, 2006; Villanueva et al, 2007). It is a well known fact that exposure to volatile and lipophilic TCM can occur through ingestion, inhalation and dermal absorption (Weisel & Jo, 1996). As a matter of fact, numerous factors related to technical requirements or individual behaviors can contribute to increasing swimming pool exposure to these chemical contaminants, in particular their formation in high quantities and their absorption by the human body (e.g., water re-circulation, high doses of applied disinfectants, poor ventilation in indoor swimming pools, continuous DPB precursor loading from swimmers and the physiological impact of physical exercise resulting in greater pulmonary ventilation) (Zwiener et al, 2007)
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