Abstract

Identifying drivers of ecosystem change in large marine ecosystems is central for their effective management and conservation. This is a sizable challenge, particularly in ecosystems transcending international borders, where monitoring and conservation of long-range migratory species and their habitats are logistically and financially problematic. Here, using tools borrowed from epidemiology, we elucidated common drivers underlying species declines within a marine ecosystem, much in the way epidemiological analyses evaluate risk factors for negative health outcomes to better inform decisions. Thus, we identified ecological traits and dietary specializations associated with species declines in a community of marine predators that could be reflective of ecosystem change. To do so, we integrated count data from winter surveys collected in long-term marine bird monitoring programs conducted throughout the Salish Sea—a transboundary large marine ecosystem in North America's Pacific Northwest. We found that decadal declines in winter counts were most prevalent among pursuit divers such as alcids (Alcidae) and grebes (Podicipedidae) that have specialized diets based on forage fish, and that wide-ranging species without local breeding colonies were more prone to these declines. Although a combination of factors is most likely driving declines of diving forage fish specialists, we propose that changes in the availability of low-trophic prey may be forcing wintering range shifts of diving birds in the Salish Sea. Such a synthesis of long-term trends in a marine predator community not only provides unique insights into the types of species that are at risk of extirpation and why, but may also inform proactive conservation measures to counteract threats—information that is paramount for species-specific and ecosystem-wide conservation.Evaluación de las Correlaciones Ecológicas de las Declinaciones de Aves Marinas para Informar a la Conservación MarinaResumenLa identificación de los conductores del cambio ambiental en los grandes ecosistemas marinos es esencial para su conservación y manejo efectivo. Esto es un reto bastante grande, particularmente en los ecosistemas que trascienden fronteras internacionales, cuando el monitoreo y la conservación de especies migratorias de amplio rango y sus hábitats son logística y financieramente problemáticos. En este caso, usando herramientas tomadas de la epidemiología, elucidamos conductores comunes subyacentes en la declinación de especies dentro de un ecosistema marino, muy similar a cómo los análisis epidemiológicos evalúan los factores de riesgo para los resultados de salud negativos e informar mejor sus decisiones. Con esto, identificamos los rasgos ecológicos y las especializaciones de dieta asociados con la declinación de especies en una comunidad de depredadores marinos que podría ser un reflejo de cambios ambientales. Para lograr esto, integramos datos de conteo de programas de censos de invierno recolectados a lo largo de monitoreos a largo plazo de aves marinas llevados a cabo en el mar Salish – un gran ecosistema marino que trasciende fronteras en el noroeste del Océano Pacífico. Encontramos que las declinaciones por década en los conteos de invierno fueron más prevalentes entre los pescadores de persecución, como los álcidos (Alcidae) y los zambullidores (Podicipedidae), que tienen dietas especializadas basadas en peces forrajeros y que las especies con distribución amplia y sin colonias reproductivas locales estaban más predispuestas a estas declinaciones. Mientras que una combinación de factores posiblemente esté causando las declinaciones de especialistas de peces forrajeros, proponemos que los cambios en la disponibilidad de presas de niveles tróficos bajos pueden estar forzando cambios en la extensión invernal de aves pescadoras en el mar Salish. Dicha síntesis de tendencias a largo plazo en una comunidad de depredadores marinos no sólo proporciona percepciones únicas de este tipo de especies que están en riesgo de ser extirpadas y el por qué de esto, sino también puede informar a las medidas de conservación proactivas para contrarrestar amenazas – información que es primordial para la conservación específica de especies y del ecosistema en su totalidad.

Highlights

  • Marine ecosystems worldwide face an increasing rate of local extinctions (Jackson et al 2001), yet identifying the mechanisms driving declines in biodiversity continues to challenge ecologists

  • Our results reinforce previous spatially restricted research that suggests abundance of wintering marine birds in the Salish Sea has been declining since the mid 1990s

  • Our community-wide trend analyses and subsequent epidemiological synthesis allowed us to identify ecological traits as risk factors that increase the likelihood of species undergoing declines and to hypothesize possible mechanisms driving changes in the Salish Sea ecosystem

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Summary

Introduction

Marine ecosystems worldwide face an increasing rate of local extinctions (Jackson et al 2001), yet identifying the mechanisms driving declines in biodiversity continues to challenge ecologists. As a result, identifying mechanisms driving multiple species declines in transboundary and large marine ecosystems has been problematic. Pooling multijurisdictional monitoring programs to assess ecosystem-wide trends in biodiversity and abundance of entire communities could reveal important clues about the commonalities of species that are more likely to decline or stop frequenting an ecosystem. In this way, unfavorable outcomes among members of a community can be related to species’ ecological traits and dietary specializations (Lips et al 2003; Johnson et al 2009), which is analogous to the identification of risk factors associated with negative health outcomes in human epidemiological studies. Assessing extinction risks in declining species is not new (e.g., Pimm et al 1988; Purvis et al 2000), but combining practices across the fields of ecology and epidemiology through data collected at decadal time scales could reveal ecological traits and ecosystem changes that place species at risk of undergoing population declines, and better inform conservation

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