Abstract
Repeated testing during learning often improves later memory, which is often referred to as the testing effect. To clarify its boundary conditions, we examined whether the testing effect was selectively affected by covert (retrieved but not articulated) or overt (retrieved and articulated) response format. In Experiments 1 and 2, we compared immediate (5 min) and delayed (1 week) cued recall for paired associates following study-only, covert, and overt conditions, including two types of overt articulation (typing and writing). A clear testing effect was observed in both experiments, but with no selective effects of response format. In Experiments 3 and 4, we compared covert and overt retrieval under blocked and random list orders. The effect sizes were small in both experiments, but there was a significant effect of response format, with overt retrieval showing better final recall performance than covert retrieval. There were no significant effects of blocked vs. random list orders with respect to the testing effect produced. Taken together, these findings suggest that, under specific circumstances, overt retrieval may lead to a greater testing effect than that of covert retrieval, but because of small effect sizes, it appears that the testing effect is mainly the result of retrieval processes and that articulation has fairly little to add to its magnitude in a paired-associates learning paradigm.
Highlights
A wealth of research has shown that individuals who repeatedly test memory during learning will perform better on a later recall test than those who spend an equal amount of time repeatedly studying the same material, a phenomenon often referred to as the testing effect (e.g., Gates, 1917; Carrier and Pashler, 1992; see Roediger and Karpicke, 2006, for a review)
While the testing effect has been found in a multitude of materials (e.g., Wheeler and Roediger, 1992; Carpenter and DeLosh, 2006; Roediger and Karpicke, 2006; Carpenter and Pashler, 2007; Kang et al, 2007; Karpicke and Roediger, 2007), all these findings are based on the same response format, namely an overt testing procedure
An alpha level of 0.05 was used, and for the analyses of variance (ANOVA) effect sizes are denoted by partial eta squared (η2p) or Cohen’s d
Summary
A wealth of research has shown that individuals who repeatedly test memory during learning will perform better on a later recall test than those who spend an equal amount of time repeatedly studying the same material, a phenomenon often referred to as the testing effect (e.g., Gates, 1917; Carrier and Pashler, 1992; see Roediger and Karpicke, 2006, for a review) This kind of self-testing has several advantages in terms of learning, monitoring and regulation: It acts as a diagnostic test of the ongoing learning process which may in turn help to direct further studying efforts to where they are most needed (Metcalfe, 2009). If the answer is not articulated, there is no way, experimentally speaking, of scoring these responses
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