Abstract
This paper reports on how the application of macro X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) imaging, in combination with the re-examination of existing paint cross-sections, has led to the discovery of a new pigment in Rembrandt’s palette: artificial orpiment. In the NWO Science4Arts ‘ReVisRembrandt’ project, novel chemical imaging techniques are being developed and applied to the study of Rembrandt’s late paintings in order to help resolve outstanding questions and to gain a better understanding of his late enigmatic painting technique. One of the selected case studies is the Portrait of a Couple as Isaac and Rebecca, known as ‘The Jewish Bride’, dated c. 1665 and on view in the Rijksmuseum. During the re-installation of the Rijksmuseum in 2013, the picture was scanned using the Bruker M6 Jetstream MA-XRF scanner. The resulting elemental distribution maps made it possible to distinguish many features in the painting, such as bone black remains of the original hat (P, Ca maps), and the now discolored smalt-rich background (Co, Ni, As, K maps). The arsenic (As) map also revealed areas of high-intensity in Isaac’s sleeve and Rebecca’s dress where it could be established that it was not related with the pigment smalt that also contains arsenic. This pointed to the presence of a yellow or orange arsenic-containing pigment, such as realgar or orpiment that is not associated with the artist’s palette. Subsequent examination of existing paint cross-sections from these locations taken by Karin Groen in the 1990s identified isolated, almost perfectly round particles of arsenic sulfide. The round shape corresponds with published findings on a purified form of artificial orpiment glass obtained by dry processing, a sublimation reaction. In bright field, the particles characteristically exhibit a dark cross in the middle caused by internal light reflections. The results of additional non-invasive techniques (portable XRD and portable Raman) are discussed, as well as the implications of this finding and how it fits with Rembrandt’s late experimental painting technique.
Highlights
The production of pigments was the work of specialists in the seventeenth century
Smalt is a blue pigment made of finely ground potassium glass that is colored blue by the addition of cobalt ore
Combined macro X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF), p-X-ray diffraction (XRD), p-Raman, and cross-section analysis has led to the discovery of artificial orpiment glass pigment in The Jewish Bride: in the yellow sleeve of Isaac and the red dress of Rebecca
Summary
The production of pigments was the work of specialists in the seventeenth century. There was a lively trade in pigments and other painting materials throughout Europe at the time. Artists bought their materials at an apothecary’s shop or at a grocer or colorman [1, 2]. The choice of pigments was limited, as compared to the huge selection of pigments available today. This limited palette was by no means an obstacle for their creativity. In particular an artist like Rembrandt knew exactly which
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