Are Liquid Metals Bulk Conductors?

Abstract

Stretchable electronics have potential in wide-reaching applications including wearables, personal health monitoring, and soft robotics. Many recent advances in stretchable electronics leverage liquid metals, particularly eutectic gallium-indium (EGaIn). A variety of EGaIn electromechanical behaviors have been reported, ranging from bulk conductor responses to effectively strain-insensitive responses. However, numerous measurement techniques have been used throughout the literature, making it difficult to directly compare the various proposed formulations. Here, the electromechanical responses of EGaIn found in the literature is reviewed and pure EGaIn is investigated using three electrical resistance measurement techniques: four point probe, two point probe, and Wheatstone bridge. The results indicate substantial differences in measured electromechanical behavior between the three methods, which can largely be accounted for by correcting for a fixed offset corresponding to the resistances of various parts of the measurement circuits. Yet, even accounting for several of these sources of experimental error, the average relative change in resistance of EGaIn is found to be lower than that predicted by the commonly used bulk conductor assumption, referred to as Pouillet's law. Building upon recent theories proposed in the literature, possible explanations for the discrepancies are discussed. Finally, suggestions are provided on experimental design to enable reproducible and interpretable research.