Abstract
Palm waste biochar (PWB) catalysts were synthesized as bio-based catalysts using different sulphonation methods. (NH4)2SO4, ClSO3H, and H2SO4 were applied to functionalize PWB and appraise the discrepancies between the sulfonic agents, as they affect the esterification reaction in terms of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield and conversion while using palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) as feedstock. The PWB was first soaked in phosphoric acid (H3PO4) for 24 h and then pyrolized at 400 °C for 2 h in tube furnace. Afterwards, sulphonation was done with different sulfonic agents and characterized with thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and temperature programmed desorption–ammonia (TPD-NH3). The three synthesized catalysts showed high free fatty acid (FFA) conversions of 90.1% for palm waste biochar-ammonium sulfate (PWB-(NH4)2SO4), 91.5% for palm waste biochar-chlorosulfonic acid (PWB-ClSO3H), and 97.4% for palm waste biochar - sulphuric acid (PWB-H2SO4), whereas FAME yields were 88.6% (PWB-(NH4)2SO4), 89.1% (PWB-ClSO3H), and 96.1% (PWB-H2SO4). It was observed that PWB-H2SO4 has the best catalytic activity, which was directly linked to its high acid density (11.35 mmol/g), improved pore diameter (6.25 nm), and increased specific surface area (372.01 m2 g−1). PWB-H2SO4 was used for the reusability study, where it underwent eight reaction runs and was stable until the seventh run. PWB-H2SO4 has shown huge promise for biodiesel synthesis, owing to its easy synthetic process, recyclability, and high catalytic activity for waste oils and fats.
Highlights
Concerns about the exploration and exploitation of petroleum fuel, which directly cause environmental pollution, have caused increased consideration for bio-based diesel [1,2]
The different sulphonation methods employed in this study may be used to synthesize bio-based materials as catalysts to produce biodiesel
The palm waste biochar (PWB) sulfonated with H2 SO4 has shown the best catalytic performance in the conversion of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) into fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), which is directly due to the synthetic process it went through
Summary
Concerns about the exploration and exploitation of petroleum fuel, which directly cause environmental pollution, have caused increased consideration for bio-based diesel [1,2]. In order to avert this dilemma, biodiesel has been produced from non-edible oils such as castor oil [7], rubber seed [8], waste animal fats [9], Jatropha curcas seeds [10], acidic soybean oil [11], and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) [12]. Amongst these non-edible oils, PFAD has exhibited more promising features due its low-cost feedstock and availability in Malaysia.
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