Application of phytotechnology in alleviating pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in wastewater: Source, impacts, treatment, mechanisms, fate, and SWOT analysis

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are over-consumed daily, and are transported along several pathways, including municipal and industrial wastewater to the aquatic environment. PPCPs are considered a type of emerging pollutants and have received alarming concern in recent years. In this review, the available and current methods of conventional and green technology used are summarised and compared with phytotechnology prospective in wastewater treatment field to combat the alarming existence of PPCPs. In applying phytoremediation for PPCPs, the effects of numerous operating parameters, including retention time, concentration, rhizosphere, flow system, and plant species, are considered. The plant mechanism of removing PPCPs from wastewater and the fate of the PPCPs after treatment are also discussed. This review discusses the opportunities to eliminate the negative ecological effects of PPCP pollution and how to sustainably protect environment and life on earth from PPCP pollution through treatment technologies, as well as the challenges in saving ecosystems from PPCP pollution via phytotechnology through the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis. The results confirmed the concerns about the widespread of PPCPs and the possibility of their transformation into pseudo-persistent pollutants. At the same time, the promising potential of CWs in removing a wide range of PPCPs has been confirmed. Intensifications such as forced aeration have enhanced the removal efficiency of biodegradable PPCPs at subsurface horizontal-flow systems. The influence of plants and hydraulic retention time on the removal process was evident.