AppleQSM: Geometry-Based 3D Characterization of Apple Tree Architecture in Orchards.

<b><sc>Abstract.</sc></b> Tree architecture is indicative of the apple tree growth and apple crop load potential. While many studies have widely used 2D imaging to measure architectural traits of tree crops, the measurement accuracy was largely limited by occlusion and scene ambiguity due to a single perspective projection in 2D images. The goal of this study was to develop a 3D point cloud-based approach for apple tree segmentation and architecture characterization. Specifically, a biological-constrained graph-based algorithm was developed to segment the trunk and branch and characterize the architectural phenotypic traits of apple trees. A Laplacian-based skeletonization algorithm was used to extract a curve skeleton from the 3D point cloud and the topological structure of the skeleton was optimized by a weighted minimum spanning tree algorithm. The trunk was segmented from the skeleton by searching for an optimal path starting from the root point and branches were divided into groups by 3D DBSCAN clustering algorithm. Tree height and trunk diameter were estimated based on the geometric information of the tree trunk. Quantitative branch patterns were revealed by estimating the branch length, branch diameter, and branch angles. Point cloud data of 9 apple trees were collected under the field condition using a terrestrial LiDAR at Cornell Orchard in Ithaca, NY, USA. Preliminary experiments showed that the proposed algorithm achieved a higher accuracy for measuring morphological traits. The extracted traits can be used for monitoring apple tree growth and apple crop load estimation.

SOME MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF COMPONENTS OF ABOVE-GROUND PHYTOMASS OF BEECH TREES DEPENDING ON THEIR ASSESSMENTS INDEXES IN THE PREVAILING FOREST VEGETATION TYPES OF POLONYNSKY RANGE OF THE UKRAINIAN CARPATHIANS

Impact of nitrogen (N) rate on spot anthracnose, powdery mildew, and Cercospora leaf spot as well as their impact on the growth of field-grown ‘Cloud 9’ and ‘Cherokee Chief’ flowering dogwood was assessed in 2003, 2004, and 2005. From 2001 to 2005, ammonium nitrate was applied at 4.1, 8.3, 16.5, 33.0 and 66.0 g N·m−2 (37.5, 75, 150, 300, 600 lb N·A−1). Heritage 50W fungicide was applied to one ‘Cherokee Chief’ and ‘Cloud 9’ flowering dogwood in each plot, while the second was untreated. Powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot were impacted by N rate more than spot anthracnose. In two of three years, powdery mildew intensified, particularly on the non-treated trees, as N rates increased. Cercospora leaf spot intensity (AUDPCI) and defoliation (AUDPCD) on the fungicide-treated and non-treated trees was influenced by N-rate in two of three and one of three years, respectively. Regardless of fungicide treatment, Cercospora leaf spot incited leaf spotting and defoliation was often lower at the two highest than the two lowest N rates. A reduction in the bract and leaf spot phases of spot anthracnose at the highest N rate was noted in 2004. While spot anthracnose was negatively correlated with trunk diameter in all three years and tree height in 2003 and 2004, Cercospora leaf spot intensity and defoliation were negatively correlated with tree height and trunk diameter in all three and two of three years, respectively. Powdery mildew had no impact on tree height or trunk diameter. Heritage 50W not only controlled spot anthracnose and powdery mildew but also slowed Cercospora leaf spot development sufficiently to enhance leaf retention and fall color.

Исследованы сорта тополей селекции А. С. Яблокова, созданные путем межвидовой гибридизации с дальнейшим отбором и вегетативным размножением (сорта-клоны): тополь советский пирамидальный и тополь Яблокова. Получено заключение о перспективности их дальнейшего использования для озеленения населенных пунктов. The purpose of the research was to compare the varieties of poplar of A. S. Yablokov: poplar Soviet pyramidal and poplar Yablokov and to make a conclusion about the prospects of their further use. Objects for the study were uneven-aged specimens of these two varieties of poplars in Moscow and the Moscow region. The following indicators were evaluated: tree height and trunk diameter; crown indicators – the length and projection of the crown, the branch angle; leaf characteristics – leaf length and width, petiole length. The condition of the plants was determined according to a rating scale for categories of tree condition. Studies have shown that the poplars of these varieties differ from each other in all parameters studied. The coefficients of variation of the tree height and the length of the crown in all varieties in all plantations belong to the low and very low levels, which means that plants of the same variety grow evenly and at a certain age reach a certain size. The Soviet pyramidal poplar varieties and the Yablokov poplar feel quite well in urban plantings. Yablokova’s poplar is stable throughout life, the Soviet pyramidal poplar is less stable at older ages and by the age of 80 it weakens and dries out. However, it is more decorative than Yablokov’s poplar. Both of these sort selection of Alexander Sergeevich Yablokov showed themselves well in urban gardening, and can be recommended for widespread use in the future.

Summary. Seventeen species of Eucalyptus were subjected to trials investigating their suitability for floriculture and the effect of pruning on cut foliage production. There was variation in leaf colour within and between species, and in the time to phase change and flowering. There were significant differences at 16 months between species for tree height, trunk diameter and lignotuber diameter with E. globulus having the largest dimensions. Following pruning at 19 months, there was an initial significant interaction between species and pruning height in relation to tree height, height increment, and trunk and lignotuber diameter. After 1 year there were significant differences between species, in the length of stems, number of stems and total weight of stems, with E. globulus producing the highest number and weight of stems. There was a positive correlation of trunk diameter and lignotuber diameter at 3 and 6 months after pruning with the number of cut foliage stems produced at 12 months. For E. gunnii pruning to 1.0 m at 25 months produced the most stems at 6 months after pruning.

Estimating branch angle distributions from terrestrial laser scanning data using an instance segmentation-based contraction method

The vigorous growth and large canopy size of commercial macadamia ( Macadamia integrifolia, M. tetraphylla , and hybrids) cultivars generally restricts macadamia orchards to low-density planting. Little is known of the detailed interactions between plant architecture and yield components specific to macadamia. This chapter examines how dependent traits such as canopy size and yield might be determined by direct and indirect interactions between traits at different scales within the canopy. Fifteen genotypes (n = 3) were phenotyped in two growing seasons for architectural and reproductive traits, around the age of their transition from juvenility to maturity. Genotypes varied in canopy volume, cumulative yield, and canopy efficiency, and particular genotypes with low canopy volume and high yield were considered potentially useful for future high-density orchard systems. There was high variability in architectural, floral, and yield traits at multiple scales. Direct and indirect effects of architectural traits on the variability of yield and tree size were quantified using path coefficient analysis. Canopy volume was subject to positive direct effects from trunk cross-sectional area (TCA; 0.72), lateral branching (0.24), and branch unit (BU) length (0.24). Other traits showed significant indirect effects with canopy volume via TCA, such as branch cross-sectional area (BCA; 0.43), BU length (0.40), lateral branching (0.35), and internode length (0.32). Branch angle had a significant indirect negative effect on canopy volume via BU length (−0.11). Nut number had the strongest direct effect on yield (0.97), and this relationship was significantly indirectly influenced by raceme number (0.47), raceme length (0.50), nut number per raceme (0.33), canopy volume (0.37), and branch angle (0.35). In these relatively young trees, early yield was directly and positively influenced by canopy volume (0.12), presumably due to increased early light interception, which suggests that early canopy vigor contributes to early yield. This study suggests that yield and canopy size are determined by complex phenotypic interactions between architectural traits at different scales. Therefore, preplanting (i.e., scion and rootstock selections) and postplanting (i.e., pruning and training) manipulations that specifically manage architectural traits such as shoot length, branching, branch angle, raceme length, and nuts per raceme may result in the creation of efficient macadamia canopies.

The purpose this research is to study the parameters of leaf (needle) share in the trees’ greenery fraction and the content of absolutely dry matter in fresh leaves of black locust and Scots pine. The leaf (needle) share in the trees greenery fraction and the content of absolutely dry matter were determined by their quantitative measures (weight and volume). The results of the research reveal that the leaf share in the structure of a tree’s greenery fraction has a broad range of values: 43.0–72.8% for black locust and 49.1–75.4% for Scots pine. The minimum value of this parameter was recorded for an overmature Robinia specimen of 41 years of age, while the maximum was for a 3-year-old tree. For pine trees the lowest values of the given parameter were registered for the spcimens aged 38, 49 and 84, the maximum – for 30–31-year-old trees. For both investigated species it should be noted that there is a consistent pattern indicated by the following trend line: with the increase of tree age, height and trunk diameter, there is a decrease of leaf share value in the trees’ greenery fraction. Such characteristic parameter as absolutely dry mass has a sufficient range of values from 0.321 to 0.524, with the extreme values for the trees belonging to the young stock group in the case of the black locust. The absolutely dry matter content in Scots pine needles showed a significant variability of values from 0.426 to 0.620. The trend line shows a tendency of increase in the value of absolutely dry matter mass in the leaves of both investigated species with the increase in the values of the tree taxation parameters. There is no statistically proven dependency of the parameter indicating leaf share in the trees greenery fraction on the age, trunk diameter and height of trees. The most important biometric indicator, which shows a moderate relationship with the greenery fraction of a tree is the average diameter of the trunk of model trees of the two studied species. This is confirmed by values of correlation coefficients. The indicator of greenery fraction is inversely dependent on the height, trunk diameter and tree age, i.e. the increase in the values of these parameters leads to the decrease in the share of the photosynthetic active component of trees of the studied tree species in the steppe zone. The value of leaf (needle) share in trees’ greenery fraction decreases with the increasing age, height and diameter values, which is quite natural. Correlation indices of absolutely dry matter according to age, height and diameter of sample trees have negative values, while the index of leaf (needle) share of trees’ greenery fraction has a direct correlation with all the studied influence factors.

Among the four commercial chestnut species the C. dentata (Marsh.) Boskh. and C. sativa P. Mill. has excellent quality but more susceptible to diseases when compared to C. mollissima Blume and C. crenata Siebold & Zucc. which has inferior quality but can be used as rootstocks. This work aimed to evaluate the behavior of chestnut varieties grafted in different rootstocks under Sao Bento do Sapucai, Sao Paulo, Brazil condition. In 1986, eleven chestnut cultivars and hybrids - Ibuki (IB), Izumo (IZ), Kinchu (KI), KM1 (KM2), KM(2) KM(2), Moriowase (MO), Okuni (OK), Taishowase (TAI), Tamatsukuri (TAM), Tiodowase (TIO) and Senri (SEN) (only graft) - were grafted each other resulting in hundred ten combinations. Fifteen-year later grafted trees with minimum of three plants were evaluated for tree height, trunk diameter above and below graft union and graft compatibility. Randomized blocks with three replications were submitted to analysis of variance for tree height and trunk diameter. Grouping analysis using the PROC CLUSTER-SAS system was used to describe the pattern of variance among different combinations. Seventy eight combinations in hundred ten showed perfect grafting compatibility 6 months after grafting. Forty seven combinations showed incompatibility after transplanting and the dieback rate in each combination ranged from 25 to 100%. Among seventy eight combinations established in the field twenty six had enough plants for evaluation fifteen-year later. Tree height and trunk diameter showed highly significant difference among the combinations. The highest plant (6 m) was grafted on Moriowase and Tamatsukuri which showed the highest compatibility as rootstock. The harvesting season is from November to May where MOR, IB, TAM, OK and TAI behave as early-season-cultivar and SEN the latest one.

BackgroundTrunk volume (Vt) is an essential parameter for estimating forest stand volume, biomass, and carbon sequestration potential. As the dominant tree species in desert riparian forests, Euphrates poplar (Populus euphratica) has a high proportion of irregularly shaped tree trunks along the Tarim River, NW China, where the habitat is very fragile owing to long-term water stress. This causes uncertainty in estimation accuracy as well as technical challenges for forest surveys. Our study aimed to acquire P. euphratica Vt using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and to establish a species-specific Vt prediction model. MethodsA total of 240 individual trees were measured by TLS multiple-station in 12 sampling plots in three sections along the lower reaches of the Tarim River. Vt was calculated by a definite integration method using trunk diameters (Di) at every 0.1-m tree height obtained from TLS, and all data were split randomly into two sets: 70% of data were used to estimate the model parameter calibration, and the remaining 30% were used for model validation. Sixteen widely used candidate tree Vt estimation models were fitted to the TLS-measured Vt and tree structural parameter data, including tree height (H), diameter at breast height (DBH), and basal diameter (BD). All model performances were evaluated and compared by the statistical parameters of determination coefficient (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), Bayesian information criterion (BIC), mean prediction error (ME), mean absolute error (MAE), and modeling efficiency (EF), and accordingly the best model was selected. ResultsTLS point cloud reflection intensity (RI) has advantageous in the extraction of data from irregular tree trunk structures. The P. euphratica tree Vt values showed obvious differences at the same tree height (H). There was no significant correlation between Vt and H (R2 ​= ​0.11, P ​< ​0.01), which reflected the irregularity of P. euphratica trunk shape in the study area. Among all the models, model (14): Vt=0.909DBH1.184H0.487BD0.836 (R2 ​= ​0.97, RMSE ​= ​0.14) had the best prediction capability for irregularly shaped Vt with the highest R2, BIC (−37.96), and EF (0.96), and produced a smaller ME (0.006) and MAE (1.177) compared to other models. The prediction accuracy was 93.18%. ConclusionsTLS point cloud RI has a potential for nondestructively measuring irregularly shaped trunk structures of P. euphratica and developed Vt prediction models. The multivariate models more effectively predicted Vt for irregularly shaped trees compared to one-way and general volume models.

The goal of this study was to examine the effectiveness of several nutrient treatments to maintain or enhance the growth and foliar nutrition of Colorado spruce (Picea pungens Engelm.) trees while they were in a mulch holding bed. Sixty 1.5 to 1.8 m tall Colorado spruce trees with 61 cm (24 inch) diameter root balls were heeled into a holding bed of fresh pine bark mulch. The treatments applied to the root balls were a control (pine bark without fertilizer), Osmocote 15-9-12 distributed over the top of the ball at 114.2 g (label rate) per root ball, one Ross Gro-Stake 10-10-10 Evergreen fertilizer spike per ball, one-half cartridge of Ross Root Feeder 10-12-12 evergreen fertilizer injected into the root ball at four points, or a 50:50 mixture (by volume) of Eko Compost mixed with pine bark. Trunk diameters and tree heights were measured and foliar samples for nutrient analyses were collected before applying these treatments and at the end of the growing season 17 weeks later. Overall, the Colorado spruce trees appeared quite normal throughout the study. Changes in tree height and trunk diameter by the end of the growing season were unaffected by the nutrient treatments. By fall, needles from trees treated with the mixture of 50:50 compost:bark had the highest levels of foliar N, Mg, Ca, S, MN and B. Trees treated with one fertilizer spike had the second highest levels of foliar N and S, and these levels were significantly higher than those of trees receiving the other fertilizer treatments. Even though all nutrient treatments failed to influence increases in tree heights and trunk diameters during the first growing season after digging, the compost:bark mixture and to some extent the fertilizer spike improved foliar nutrition during this time.

Holding practices for balled and burlapped conifers may inadvertently impact nutrient availability and tree growth. The objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of several nutrient treatments to maintain or enhance the growth and foliar nutrition of Colorado spruce ( Picea pungens Engelm.) trees while they were in a mulch-holding bed. Sixty 1.5 to 1.8-m tall Colorado spruce trees with 61-cm (24 inch) diameter root balls were heeled into a holding bed of fresh pine bark mulch during 2002 and 2003. The treatments applied to the root balls were a control (pine bark without fertilizer), 114.2 g Osmocote (Scotts, Marysville, OH) 15N–3.9P–10K distributed over the top of the ball, one Ross Gro-Stake (Easy Gardener, Waco, TX) 10N–4.3P–8.3K Evergreen fertilizer spike (113 g) per ball, one-half cartridge (≈8.5 g) of Ross Root Feeder (Weatherly Consumer Products, Lexington, KY) 10N–5.2P–10K evergreen fertilizer injected into the root ball at four points, or a 1:1 biosolids-based compost:pine bark mixture (by volume). Trunk diameters and tree heights were measured and foliar samples for nutrient analyses were collected before applying these treatments and at the end of the growing season 20 or 17 weeks later. The 2003 trees were transplanted to a landscape site in 2004, and the height growth of their terminal leaders were measured at the end of the next two growing seasons. Overall, Colorado spruce trees appeared normal while they were held in the mulch beds the first season after nursery harvest. Changes in tree height and trunk diameter by the end of the first season after harvest were unaffected by the nutrient treatments. By fall of both years, needles from trees treated with the mixture of 1:1 compost:bark had the highest levels of foliar N, Mg, Ca, S, and B. Trees treated with the fertilizer spike in 2002 had similar levels of N and S in their needles compared with compost:bark-treated trees, whereas in 2003, spike-treated trees had the second highest levels of foliar N and S, and these levels were significantly higher than those of trees receiving the control or other fertilizer treatments with the exception of N in needles from fertilizer-injected trees in 2002. Plant-available N, however, was highest in the root balls of Osmocote- and fertilizer spike-treated trees only in 2003. Leaders on the 2003 trees that received the compost:bark or fertilizer spike treatments grew at least 70% or 36% taller, respectively, than those trees receiving the other treatments by the end of the second growing season in a managed landscape. Although all nutrient treatments failed to promote increases in tree heights and trunk diameters while the trees were held in a mulch bed for the first growing season after digging, the compost:bark mixture and, to some extent, the fertilizer spike improved foliar nutrition during this time.

Forest parameters could be estimated without damage using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). In this study, 1266 sets of branch parameters, including branch height, branch chord length, branch length, branch angle, branch diameter and the branch arc height, of 26 Larix trees were extracted based on TLS using point cloud processing software in the way of human-computer interaction. The average of extracted maximum relative height of the branches was 0.83. The accuracy of the extracted branch attributes followed the order of branch height > branch chord length > branch length > branchdiameter (with the branch diameter >20 mm) > branch arc height. After dividing the crown into four parts, it proved that the density of the branches increased while the extraction ratio and precision of branches decreased with the increase of crown height. Due to the low accuracy of branch diameter extraction, we developed a base diameter prediction model using the branch chord length, the height of branch, diameter at breast height and tree height as independent variables. The measured, extracted and model predicted values of different base diameter were compared, and discovered that accuracy of model prediction was greater than that of extraction by TLS. For timber production, the most worthy wood was the middle and lower section of the tree. The method could accurately extract tree height, diameter at breast height (DBH) and the branch attributes with the relative branch height of less than 0.8, providing the parameters that are necessary to develop a wood quality model.

Twenty birch genotypes were planted in the field in April 2002 to evaluate their survival and growth at Fayetteville and Hope, Arkansas, U.S., and to evaluate their response to two irrigation regimes at Fayetteville. After four growing seasons, the overall tree survival was 62% and 30% at Fayetteville and Hope, respectively. Betula pendula ‘Trost’s Dwarf’, B. ermanii, and B. albosinensis were among genotypes with the lowest survival at both locations. Betula populifolia, B. nigra ‘BNMTF’, B. nigra ‘Cully’, and B. × ‘Royal Frost’ had greater survival after four growing seasons than the other birch genotypes investigated. Betula nigra ‘BNMTF’ and B. nigra ‘Cully’ were taller and had greater trunk diameter than the other surviving birch genotypes at both locations after four growing seasons. At the end of 2005, B. utilis var. jacquemontii was the shortest and had the smallest trunk diameter among the 18 surviving genotypes at Fayetteville, and B. papyrifera ‘Uenci’, B. populifolia ‘Whitespire’, B. maximowicziana, and B. lenta were the shortest and had the smallest trunk diameter among the 13 surviving genotypes at Hope. At Fayetteville, B. nigra and B. davurica had the greatest annual change in tree height in both 2004 and 2005, and B. davurica was among genotypes having the greatest annual change in trunk diameter in 2002, 2004, and 2005. At Hope, B. papyrifera had the greatest annual change in tree height in both 2004 and 2005, and B. davurica had the greatest annual change in trunk diameter in 2004. In 2005, annual change was not significant among birch genotypes at Hope. At Fayetteville, water-stress treatment reduced final tree height and trunk diameter in birch trees.

In the realm of environmental monitoring and urban planning, the accurate assessment of tree parameters from 3D point clouds is essential for effective resource management and decision-making. This paper introduces a versatile and user-friendly approach designed to streamline the extraction of key tree parameters from 3D point clouds.The related software employs advanced point cloud processing algorithms to identify and analyze individual trees within a point cloud dataset, acquired through terrestrial laser scanners (TLS), facilitating the extraction of crucial parameters such as tree height, crown diameter, and trunk diameter at breast height (DBH). Leveraging state-of-the-art computer vision techniques, this approach ensures high precision and efficiency in tree parameter extraction, even in complex and densely vegetated environments.Key features include an intuitive graphical user interface, allowing users to interactively visualize and validate the extracted tree parameters. The ability to adjust the various tree extraction and segmentation settings at any time gives the user complete freedom to modify their analysis to their needs.The results showcase the software's ability to accurately and efficiently extract tree parameters, making it a valuable tool for researchers, urban planners, and environmental professionals engaged in forestry management, green infrastructure planning, and ecological monitoring.A reliable database and a procedure suitable for everyday use are enormously important to ensure highly accurate monitoring and to cope with the ever faster changing conditions and their effects on vegetation. Therefore an additional approach to use a terrestrial laser scanner in kinematic mode is presented, which allows the generation of a comprehensive point cloud in a short time.Overall, the software LIS TreeAnalyzer, a plugin to RIEGL&amp;#8217;s RiSCAN PRO, contributes to the advancement of 3D point cloud analysis by providing a robust solution for the extraction of tree parameters, ultimately supporting sustainable urban development and informed decision-making in the field of environmental science and resource management.