Abstract
In this study, the protective effects of white mulberry (Morus alba) fruits on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages were investigated. The ethanol (EtOH) extract of white mulberry fruits and its derived fractions contained adequate total phenolic and flavonoid contents, with good in vitro antioxidant radical scavenging activity. The extract and fractions also markedly inhibited ROS generation and antioxidant activity. After treatment with the EtOH extract and its fractions, LPS stimulation-induced elevated nitric oxide (NO) production was restored, which was primarily mediated by downregulation of inducible NO synthase expression. A total of 20 chemical constituents including flavonoids, steroids, and phenolics were identified in the fractions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF) high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). These findings provide experimental evidence of the protective effects of white mulberry fruit extract against oxidative stress and inflammatory responses, suggesting their nutraceutical and pharmaceutical potential as natural antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.
Highlights
Inflammation, a major mechanism mediating innate and adaptive immunity, is a complex physiological response that protects the organism against foreign harmful stimuli such as pathogens, particles, and viruses
The results showed that the ethanol (EtOH) extract of the white mulberry fruits and its derived fractions contained adequate total phenolic (from 102.0 to 204.3 mg garlic acid equivalent (GAE)/g) and flavonoid (from 55.1 to 74.9 mg catechin equivalent (CAE)/g) contents
The highest total phenolic content was found in the n-butanol (BuOH) fraction (204.3 ± 4.7 mg GAE/g), the highest flavonoid content was in the ethyl acetate (EA) fraction (74.9 ± 4.7 mg CAE/g), while the hexane (HX) fraction exhibited the lowest values of both contents (Table 1)
Summary
Inflammation, a major mechanism mediating innate and adaptive immunity, is a complex physiological response that protects the organism against foreign harmful stimuli such as pathogens, particles, and viruses. Cellular and molecular processes of chronic inflammation are varied and depend on the organ involved and, are closely associated with the development and deterioration of many chronic diseases including cardiovascular, neurological, pulmonary, metabolic, endocrine, and autoimmune disorders as well as cancer [1]. Following the initiation of inflammatory responses, immune system cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6, which induce the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [2]. Cellular antioxidant systems activate genes involved in DNA repair in response to ROS-induced DNA damage [3]
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