Abstract
Chronic inflammation is characterized by an overproduction of several inflammatory mediators (e.g., reactive species and interleukins -IL) that play a central role in numerous diseases. The available therapies are often associated with serious side effects and, consequently, the need for safer drugs is of utmost importance. A plant traditionally used in the treatment of inflammatory conditions is Salvia officinalis. Therefore, conventional maceration and infusion of its leaves were performed to obtain hydroethanolic (HE-T) and aqueous extracts (AE-T), respectively. Their efficacy was compared to soxhlet extracts, namely aqueous (AE-S), hydroethanolic (HE-S), and ethanolic extracts (EE-S). Thin-layer chromatography demonstrated the presence of rosmarinic acid, carnosol, and/or carnosic acid in the different extracts. Generally, soxhlet provided extracts with higher antioxidant activities than traditional extraction. Moreover, under an inflammatory scenario, EE-S were the most effective, followed by HE-S, HE-T, AE-T, and AE-S, in the reduction of IL-6 and TNF-α production. Interestingly, the extracts presented higher or similar anti-inflammatory activity than diclofenac, salicylic acid, and celecoxib. In conclusion, the extraction method and the solvents of extraction influenced the antioxidant activity, but mainly the anti-inflammatory activity of the extracts. Therefore, this natural resource can enable the development of effective treatments for oxidative stress and inflammatory diseases.
Highlights
Inflammation is essential for human life, leading to the elimination of noxious stimuli and restoration of tissue homeostasis [1]
An aluminum thin-layer chromatography (TLC) plate, silica gel coated with fluorescent indicator F254 (20 × 20 cm), chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetic acid, ethanol, sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), Folin–Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent, gallic acid, aluminum chloride, rutin, DPPH, ABTS+, potassium phosphate dibasic, potassium phosphate monobasic, fluorescein sodium salt, 2,2 -azobis(2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride (AAPH), sodium nitroprusside dihydrate (SNP), sulfanilamide (SA), N-(1-Naphthyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NED), phosphoric acid, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), β-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), nitrotetrazolium blue chloride (NBT), phenazine methosulfate (PMS), sodium phosphate dibasic, sodium phosphate monobasic, potassium ferricyanide (III), trichloroacetic acid and ferric chloride (III), low-glucose Dulbecco’s modified eagle’s medium (DMEM), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (Escherichia coli O26:B6), dexamethasone, diclofenac, and salicylic acid were purchased from Sigma
Analyzing all the S. officinalis extracts, HE-S had a similar yield to AE-S, followed by hydroethanolic extracts (HE-T), aqueous extracts (AE-T), and ethanolic extracts (EE-S)
Summary
Inflammation is essential for human life, leading to the elimination of noxious stimuli and restoration of tissue homeostasis [1]. ROS/RNS can activate several essential inflammatory pathways, which will result in the release of several proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin -IL-6, tumor necrosis factor -TNF-α) and chemokines (e.g., IL-8) with the ability to recruit more immune cells to the site of inflammation [6,7]. IL-6 is a important mediator of the acute phase response, inducing fever, stimulating the production of neutrophils in the bone marrow, and supporting the growth and differentiation of B cells [8]. Another cytokine with an important role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory conditions is TNF-α to regulate cell growth and proliferation, the release of adhesion molecules, and the expression of inflammatory mediators [9]
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