Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides, or AMPs, play a significant role in many environments as a tool to remove competing organisms. In response, many bacteria have evolved mechanisms to resist these peptides and prevent AMP-mediated killing. The development of AMP resistance mechanisms is driven by direct competition between bacterial species, as well as host and pathogen interactions. Akin to the number of different AMPs found in nature, resistance mechanisms that have evolved are just as varied and may confer broad-range resistance or specific resistance to AMPs. Specific mechanisms of AMP resistance prevent AMP-mediated killing against a single type of AMP, while broad resistance mechanisms often lead to a global change in the bacterial cell surface and protect the bacterium from a large group of AMPs that have similar characteristics. AMP resistance mechanisms can be found in many species of bacteria and can provide a competitive edge against other bacterial species or a host immune response. Gram-positive bacteria are one of the largest AMP producing groups, but characterization of Gram-positive AMP resistance mechanisms lags behind that of Gram-negative species. In this review we present a summary of the AMP resistance mechanisms that have been identified and characterized in Gram-positive bacteria. Understanding the mechanisms of AMP resistance in Gram-positive species can provide guidelines in developing and applying AMPs as therapeutics, and offer insight into the role of resistance in bacterial pathogenesis.
Highlights
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and the bacterial resistance mechanisms against them have been co-evolving for eons
We evaluate the available literature on Gram-positive bacterial resistance mechanisms to antimicrobial peptides
Antimicrobial peptides are diverse in both structure and function and are produced by all forms of life
Summary
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and the bacterial resistance mechanisms against them have been co-evolving for eons. AMPs are found in a multitude of environments, ranging from mammalian tissues to soil and aquatic environments. This ubiquitous presence of AMPs in the environment provides strong selective pressure to drive the development of bacterial resistance against these peptides. Most AMPs work by interacting with the bacterial cell surface, followed by disruption of cellular integrity. This review highlights methods of AMP resistance based on mode of action and location within the Gram-positive bacterial cell. We begin with an overview of resistance mechanisms that act on AMPs extracellularly, and discuss bacterial cell surface alterations. We consider removal of AMPs from the bacterial cell via transport
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