Abstract
With the present study we investigated cue-induced preparation in a Simon task and measured electroencephalogram and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data in two within-subjects sessions. Cues informed either about the upcoming (1) spatial stimulus-response compatibility (rule cues), or (2) the stimulus location (position cues), or (3) were non-informative. Only rule cues allowed anticipating the upcoming compatibility condition. Position cues allowed anticipation of the upcoming location of the Simon stimulus but not its compatibility condition. Rule cues elicited fastest and most accurate performance for both compatible and incompatible trials. The contingent negative variation (CNV) in the event-related potential (ERP) of the cue-target interval is an index of anticipatory preparation and was magnified after rule cues. The N2 in the post-target ERP as a measure of online action control was reduced in Simon trials after rule cues. Although compatible trials were faster than incompatible trials in all cue conditions only non-informative cues revealed a compatibility effect in additional indicators of Simon task conflict like accuracy and the N2. We thus conclude that rule cues induced anticipatory re-coding of the Simon task that did not involve cognitive conflict anymore. fMRI revealed that rule cues yielded more activation of the left rostral, dorsal, and ventral prefrontal cortex as well as the pre-SMA as compared to POS and NON-cues. Pre-SMA and ventrolateral prefrontal activation after rule cues correlated with the effective use of rule cues in behavioral performance. Position cues induced a smaller CNV effect and exhibited less prefrontal and pre-SMA contributions in fMRI. Our data point to the importance to disentangle different anticipatory adjustments that might also include the prevention of upcoming conflict via task re-coding.
Highlights
Our ability to exert cognitive control in order to adjust ongoing performance to changing environmental conditions is essential for flexible behavior in everyday life
We conclude that rule cues induced anticipatory re-coding of the Simon task that did not involve cognitive conflict anymore. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) revealed that rule cues yielded more activation of the left rostral, dorsal, and ventral prefrontal cortex as well as the pre-SMA as compared to position cues (POS) and NON-cues
EEG and fMRI measures were recorded in a Simon task combined with cues that predicted compatibility, stimulus location, or were non-informative
Summary
Our ability to exert cognitive control in order to adjust ongoing performance to changing environmental conditions is essential for flexible behavior in everyday life. Whenever prior information or experience is available we attempt to avoid costs of inappropriate behavior (Kool et al, 2010) Such anticipatory processes are especially inevitable in settings calling for online control: the need for cognitive control elicited by preceding difficulties or errors engenders regulatory processes and people build subjective predictions about upcoming task demands on the basis of accumulating task knowledge. The second dimension describes different types of adjustments that may accomplish both prospective as well as reactive anticipatory regulation: Proactive adjustments may boost subsequent online conflict control by modifying the level of response or inhibition readiness. Preemptive adjustments may to diminish or avoid the need for cognitive control by modifying the level or focus of selective attention Such adjustments are obviously thinkable in the context of cognitive conflict but in all situations with high cognitive demand or increased error probability. Wühr and Kunde (2008) cued the compatibility of upcoming trials and showed that participants effectively used the task-irrelevant stimulus location instead of the www.frontiersin.org
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