Abstract
The humoral immune response and antibody-mediated functions of B cells during viral infections are well described. However, we have limited understanding of antibody-independent B cell functions, such as cytokine production and antigen presentation, in acute and chronic viral infections and their role in protection and/or immunopathogenesis. Here, we summarize the current literature on these antibody-independent B cell functions and identify remaining knowledge gaps. B cell subsets produce anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can have both beneficial and detrimental effects during viral clearance. As professional antigen presenting cells, B cells also play an important role in immune regulation/shaping of the developing adaptive immune responses. Since B cells primarily express TLR7 and TLR9, we specifically discuss the role of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated B cell responses to viral infections and their role in augmenting adaptive immunity through enhanced cytokine production and antigen presentation. However, viruses have evolved strategies to subvert TLR signaling and additional stimulation via B cell receptor (BCR) may be required to overcome the defective TLR response in B cells. To conclude, antibody-independent B cell functions seem to have an important role in regulating both acute and chronic viral infections and may form the basis for novel therapeutic approaches in treatment of viral infections in the future.
Highlights
B cells are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow
Upon recognition of the antigen, B cells are activated and differentiate into memory cells, short-lived antibody-secreting plasmablasts, and long-lived plasma cells, all of which are recognized as the conventional effector cells involved in the humoral immune response
We focused on the IL-10–mediated regulation of the immune response by various B cell subsets, production of other cytokines by B cells, antigen presentation, and Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated activation of B cells during viral infections
Summary
The humoral immune response and antibody-mediated functions of B cells during viral infections are well described. We have limited understanding of antibody-independent B cell functions, such as cytokine production and antigen presentation, in acute and chronic viral infections and their role in protection and/or immunopathogenesis. As professional antigen presenting cells, B cells play an important role in immune regulation/ shaping of the developing adaptive immune responses. Since B cells primarily express TLR7 and TLR9, we discuss the role of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated B cell responses to viral infections and their role in augmenting adaptive immunity through enhanced cytokine production and antigen presentation. Antibody-independent B cell functions seem to have an important role in regulating both acute and chronic viral infections and may form the basis for novel therapeutic approaches in treatment of viral infections in the future
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