Animals Helping Animals: How Dog Detectives Can Help Save Endangered Species

The identification of areas of high priority for conservation is becoming a major endeavor for conservation biologists. Regions of high species richness and high concentrations of endemic and endangered species have been considered a priority for conservation. In this paper we use information about the species richness, composition, and distribution of mammals from Mexico for selecting priority areas for conservation. All species of terrestrial mammals were characterized by geographic range size, body mass, and conservation status, and their distributions were overlaid on a 2° × 2° grid to detect areas of high concentrations of species richness, endemicity, and endangered species. We focused our analyses at both species and biogeographic levels. At the species level we examined differences among endangered, endemic, and non-endemic species in ecological characteristics correlated with vulnerability to extinction. There were significant differences between endangered and non-endangered species, and between endemic and non-endemic mammals in body size and geographic range size. At the biogeographic level simple correlation analyses were carried out to determine the relation between latitude, total species richness, number of endemic species, and number of endangered species. We found a very low correspondence among areas of high diversity, high endemicity, or high number of endangered species. The distribution of many species with restricted geographic ranges, including endemic and non-endemic species, did not coincide with areas of high species richness, endemicity, or endangerment. We suggest a conservation strategy that gives priority to areas of high concentration of endangered species and of non-endangered species with restricted distributions. Among endangered species a higher priority should be given to endemic taxa vs. non-endemic species, and to restricted species over widespread taxa in these two groups.

Conservation biology as a discipline focused on endangered species is young and dates only from the late 1970s. Although conservation of endangered species encompasses many different biological disciplines, including behavior, ecology, and genetics, evolutionary considerations always have been emphasized (e.g., Frankel and Soule 1981). Many of the applications of evolutionary concepts to conservation are ones related to genetic variation in small or subdivided populations. However, the critical status of many endangered species makes both more precision and more caution necessary than the general findings for evolutionary considerations. On the other hand, the dire situations of many endangered species often require recommendations to be made on less than adequate data. Overall, one can think of the evolutionary aspects of conservation biology as an applied aspect of the evolution of small populations with the important constraint that any conclusions or recommendations may influence the actual extinction of the populations or species under consideration. From this perspective, all of the factors that influence continuing evolution (i.e., selection, inbreeding, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation; e.g., Hedrick 2000) are potentially important in conservation. The evolutionary issues of widest concern in conservation biology—inbreeding depression and maintenance of genetic variation— can be seen in their simplest form as the joint effects of inbreeding and selection, and of genetic drift and mutation, respectively. However, even in model organisms such as Drosophila, the basis of inbreeding depression and the maintenance of genetic variation are not clearly understood. In addition, findings from model laboratory organisms may not provide good insight into problems in many endangered species, the most visible of which are generally slowly reproducing, large vertebrates with small populations. Here we will first focus on introductions to two important evolutionary aspects of conservation biology: the units of conservation and inbreeding depression. Then, we will discuss studies in two organisms as illustrations of these and related principles—an endangered fish species, the Gila topminnow, and desert bighorn sheep—to illustrate some evolutionary aspects of conservation. In the discussion, we will mention some of the other evolutionary topics that are relevant to conservation biology.

Trees are vital to the survival of numerous species and to forest ecosystem functioning. However, the current distribution, vulnerability to extinction, and conservation priorities of globally endangered trees are not well known. We mapped the global distribution of 1686 tree species listed as endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List and identified conservation priority for them based on species richness, life-history traits, evolutionary distinctiveness, future climate change, and intensity of human activities. We also evaluated the impacts of various threats to these endangered tree species and evaluated the effectiveness of their protection based on the percentage of the species' range inside protected areas. The worldwide distribution of endangered trees, from the tropics through temperate zones, was uneven. Most endangered tree species were not protected in their native ranges, and only 153 species were fully protected. Hotspots of tree diversity occurred primarily in the tropics, and 79.06% of these were highly vulnerable to threats. We identified 253 areas of high priority for the conservation of endangered trees that are highly threatened and insufficiently protected. In particular, 43.42% of unprotected tree species in priority areas lacked recommended conservation measures or had no associated conservation plan. The priority conservation areas and unprotected trees we identified serve as a guideline for future management underpinning the post-2020 global biodiversity framework.

A Chinese model for legal regulation of Gene-Edited endangered animals and plants

Suitable surrogates are critical for identifying optimal priority conservation areas (PCAs) to protect regional biodiversity. This study explored the efficiency of using endangered plants and animals as surrogates for identifying PCAs at the county level in Yunnan, southwest China. We ran the Dobson algorithm under three surrogate scenarios at 75% and 100% conservation levels and identified four types of PCAs. Assessment of the protection efficiencies of the four types of PCAs showed that endangered plants had higher surrogacy values than endangered animals but that the two were not substitutable; coupled endangered plants and animals as surrogates yielded a higher surrogacy value than endangered plants or animals as surrogates; the plant-animal priority areas (PAPAs) was the optimal among the four types of PCAs for conserving both endangered plants and animals in Yunnan. PAPAs could well represent overall species diversity distribution patterns and overlap with critical biogeographical regions in Yunnan. Fourteen priority units in PAPAs should be urgently considered as optimizing Yunnan’s protected area system. The spatial pattern of PAPAs at the 100% conservation level could be conceptualized into three connected conservation belts, providing a valuable reference for optimizing the layout of the in situ protected area system in Yunnan.

A comprehensive new meta-analysis provides strong evidence that goes some way to dispelling the influential nagging doubt in the minds of conservation geneticists, first raised in the 1980s, that genetic considerations might be irrelevant to the conservation of species on the brink. What happens when a species goes extinct? In the recent past, we have watched many species go down this route, and the characterization of the factors involved has been a major goal of conservation biologists. There are many logical arguments for the importance of genetic factors involved in extinction, but some extremely challenging arguments that genetics does not matter have also been raised (Lande, 1988). Basically, these counter-arguments suggest that demographic factors are more important, to the extent that genetic variability and other genetic factors are irrelevant as a species approaches extinction. Now, Spielman et al (2004) have used a meta-analysis approach to address if indeed genetic factors impact species as they are driven to extinction. Their analyses of genetic variability and heterozygosity strongly indicate that genetic factors impact most species on the road to extinction. Conservation genetics has now survived three major challenges to its utility for helping to make conservation management decisions (DeSalle and Amato, 2004). The first challenge was raised with respect to species definitions and boundaries and the role of genetics in delimiting conservation units (Ryder, 1986). The second concerned Caughley’s (1994) critique that there was too much focus on technical approaches to conservation (including conservation genetics) resulting in the neglect of more important issues, such as habitat threat and disease. The third challenge, the focus of this report, and perhaps one of the most contentious subjects in conservation biology, is the role (if any) that genetic factors play in the extinction and endangerment of wildlife. Simply put, the argument for the importance of genetics in conservation is based on the assumption that genetic variability is good and genetic homogeneity is bad. More specifically, genetically diverse populations or species are more likely to avoid inbreeding and loss of variability due to stochastic factors. Such avoidance allows genetically diverse populations to adapt to stochastic events or events that might be selective forces in microevolutionary contexts. The classic example of this concept involving the genetic impact of low variability is the case of the cheetah. Cheetahs were shown to have extremely low levels of genetic variability at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) loci (O’Brien et al, 1985). This lack of variability at loci responsible for immune response was thought to be an important factor in the negative response of cheetah populations to environmental challenge. Lande (1988) challenged this notion of the importance of genetic factors in endangered species in a landmark paper when he suggested that demographic factors (such as those that influence population growth and life history) were much more important than genetic factors in the endangerment and extinction of species. Consequently, the challenge of providing strong evidence for the importance of genetic factors in endangerment of species has fallen upon practicing conservation geneticists who use genetic variability as a tool in plying their trade. Most previous approaches to examining this problem have focused on single or a few specific species. Enter Spielman et al (2004) with their recent meta-analysis of a large sample from the literature of genetic variability studies of critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable (the categorization system of the IUCN-The World Conservation Union Red List) species. They collated results from 170 threatened taxa with either allozyme, microsattelite, or minisattelite data available. By comparing the heterozygosity of the ‘threatened’ (Ht) species with the heterozygosity of the nearest related nonthreatened (Hnt) species (Figure 1), they show a clear trend of threatened species having lower heterozygosity than nonthreatened. In 77% of the paired comparisons, overall Ht was less than Hnt, a result that was highly statistically significant. Why, then, does the ‘no genetic impact hypothesis’ not apply to most threatened taxa? Spielman et al (2004) give four reasons why the original challenge to the importance of genetic factors underestimated the impact of inbreeding and loss of genetic variability on threatened species (Table 1). Any meta-analysis has the shortcoming of combining inconsistent data from broadly divergent sources. While the Spielman et al (2004) study is carefully conducted, to avoid this problem in future similar analyses, we need to develop standardized approaches for estimating the relative decrease of genetic

Endangered species mitigation banking: promoting recovery through habitat conservation planning under the Endangered Species Act

Afzelia xylocarpa is listed as an endangered species on the IUCN World list of Threatened Trees, due to over exploitation for its valuable timber and habitat loss, have resulted in a rapid decline of populations size and local population extinction. Understanding of the processes that determine population genetic structure, gene flow and mating systems is important to conserve and manage the existing populations for this endangered tree species. This study describes the level of genetic diversity and differentiation of fifteen populations of A. xylocarpa in Thailand. Genetic variations at seven nuclear microsatellite loci were examined. The seven nuclear microsatellite loci employed detected a total of 53 alleles (n=432). The nSSRs data indicate that a high level of genetic diversity (HS = 0.575) and low level of genetic differentiation among the 15 examined A. xylocarpa populations. The observed level of genetic differentiation among the 15 populations was low, as revealed by FST = 0.074 and GST = 0.078. The results for the nSSRs suggested that all of the populations in North Eastern, Central Thailand and the Klong Lan populations harbored the high genetic diversity and less divergent from the other populations. Therefore, these populations should be assigned the highest priority for conservation of this species.   Key words: Afzelia xylocarpa, genetic diversity, endangered species, tropical tree, conservation.

With 127 rare and endangered plant species of Inner Mongolian in Catalogue of Rare and Endangered Plants in China, China Plant Red Book, National Key Protected Wild Plants List (List No. 1), China Species Red List, Red List of Biodiversity in China: Volume of Higher Plants, List of Rare and Endangered Plants in Inner Mongolia and Atlas of Rare and Endangered Plants in Inner Mongolia as objects, an evaluation system of the threatened grades and conservation priority of rare and endangered plants were built based on data collection and consultation with experts. We set the five criteria, including endangered coefficient, genetic coefficient, utilization coefficient, habitat coefficient, and reproduction coefficient, under which there were 17 subordinate indicators. The analytic hierarchy process was employed to determine the weight of indicators in the system and calculate the endangered grades and conservation priority grades for the rare and endangered species. According to the results of evaluations, two critically endangered (CR) species, 13 endangered (EN) species, 37 vulnerable (VU) species, 44 near threatened (NT) species, and 31 least concern (LC) species were identified, accounting for 1.6%, 10.2%, 29.1%, 34.7% and 24.4% of the total, respectively. Among those species, 52 species were threatened, namely CR, EN and VU species, accounting for 40.9% of the total. The evaluation results of conservation priority grades were: 35 species of Class 1 protected plants, 72 species of Class 2 protected plants, and 20 species of Class 3 protected plants, accounting for 27.6%, 56.7% and 15.8% of the total, respectively. According to the results of evaluation comparison between Red List of Biodiversity in China: Volume of Higher Plants and List of Rare and Endangered Plants in Inner Mongolia, endangered grades of 75 plant species and the protection classes of 62 plant species were calibrated. In this evaluation, the endangered grades of nine plant species and the protection classes of 32 plant species were newly added.

Gene products of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of human and non-human primates play a crucial role in adaptive immunity, and most of the relevant genes not only show a high degree of variability (polymorphism) but also copy number variation (CNV) is observed. Due to this diversity, MHC proteins influence the capability of individuals to cope with various pathogens. MHC and/or MHC-linked gene products such as odorant receptor genes are thought to influence mate choice and reproductive success. Therefore, MHC typing of wild and captive primate populations is considered to be useful in conservation biology, which is, however, often hampered by the need of invasive and time-consuming methods. All intact Mhc-DRB genes in primates appear to possess a complex and highly divergent microsatellite, DRB-STR. A panel of 154 pedigreed olive baboons (Papio anubis) was examined for their DRB content by DRB-STR analysis of genomic DNA. Using the same methodology on DNA of feces samples, DRB variability of a silvery gibbon population (Hylobates moloch) (N = 24), an endangered species, could successfully be studied. In both species, length determination of the DRB-STR resulted in the definition of unique genotyping patterns that appeared to be specific for a certain chromosome. Moreover, the different STR lengths were shown to segregate with the allelic variation of the respective gene. The results obtained expand data gained previously on DRB-STR typing in macaques, great apes, and humans and strengthen the conclusion that this protocol is applicable in molecular ecology, conservation biology, and colony management, especially of endangered primate species.

The conservation movement in North America emerged in part due to the shock of the extinction of the passenger pigeon and the near extinction of the American bison, species that had once been considered too numerous to be depleted. By the 1960s, a broad consensus emerged in the United States that species should not be driven to extinction by human activity. Since then, however, the Endangered Species Act and major programs to restore endangered and threatened species have become controversial. Private property rights advocates claim that endangered species protection hampers economic activity and land development to an unreasonable extent. At the same time some conservationists are concerned that too much money and effort are devoted to endangered species, diverting efforts from protection of entire ecosystems that support numerous species. They argue that given the limited resources available, preventing common species from becoming rare is the most effective long-term strategy. Defenders of endangered species programs claim that protecting endangered species usually entails protecting entire ecosystems, and endangered species can serve as effective symbols to rally support for ecosystem protection. Saving Biological Diversity: Balancing the Protection of Endangered Species and Ecosystems seeks to emphasize the interplay between the science and policy of species protection. We have chosen to take a broadly interdisciplinary approach by focusing on such important topics as the effectiveness and economics of endangered species protection, efforts to sustain biological diversity in entire ecosystems or across regional landscapes, and the need to protect species diversity on a global scale. Our book is a synthesis of the views of economists, political scientists, resource managers and conservation biologists on a wide array of species protection issues. In a single book we could not hope to address the myriad species, habitats, ecosystems, conservation issues and political systems worldwide that a truly comprehensive treatment would require. Instead we present chapters illustrating a wide range of problems and solutions as they are seen by people who work in an array of disciplines and professions. Since our authors come from different academic traditions, the editors have chosen to tread lightly on preferred writing and referencing styles. While this results in some distinct stylistic differences between those authors with a legal background and those with scientific training, it does not detract from the communication of important ideas. Our goal for this book is to engage a wide audience that includes researchers, concerned citizens, regulators, conservation managers and policy analysts. Saving Biological Diversity may also serve as a book of readings for courses in conservation biology, environmental studies, or environmental policy. We believe that the juxtaposition of

The US Endangered Species Act is legislation with the power to limit human activities that may have deleterious effects on the viability of threatened and endangered species of fauna and flora. However, because most endangered species face multiple threats, it is often unclear whether limiting specific activities will improve the likelihood of long-term survival, particularly when the relative importance of different stressors is uncertain. Wildlife managers responsible for protecting these species face the challenge of determining the optimal allocation of limited funds and personnel among risk management and conservation priorities, in the absence of a good understanding of the relative importance of these stressors. We present an analytical framework that can serve as a technical basis for evaluating multiple risks to endangered species. Predictive and retrospective causal analysis applications are considered. The former address proposed projects where the potential exists for adverse interaction between the project and an endangered species. The latter involve existing projects or products for which a determination is being or has been made concerning the threats posed to an endangered species. The causal analysis method described herein is a well-established procedure that is widely used in other scientific fields and offers a practical and logical process through which threats to endangered species can be assessed and recovery actions prioritized.

Broennimann O., Vittoz P., Moser D. and Guisan A. 2005. Rarity types among plant species with high conservation priority in Switzerland. Bot. Helv. 115: 95‐108. We investigated the ecogeographic characteristics of 118 Swiss plant species listed as those deserving highest conservation priority in a national conservation guide and classified them into the seven Rabinowitz’ rarity types, taking geographic distribution, habitat rarity and local population size into account. Our analysis revealed that species with high conservation priority in Switzerland mostly have a very restricted geographic distribution in Switzerland and generally occur in rare habitats, but do not necessarily constitute small populations and are generally not endemics on a global scale. Moreover, species that are geographically very restricted on a regional scale are not generally restricted on a global scale. By analysing relationships between rarity and IUCN extinction risks for Switzerland, we demonstrated that species with the highest risk of extinction are those with the most restricted geographic distribution; whereas species with lower risk of extinction (but still high conservation priority) include many regional endemics. Habitat rarity and local population size appeared to be of minor importance for the assessment of extinction risk in Switzerland, but the total number of fulfilled rarity criteria still correlated positively with the severity of extinction risk. Our classification is the first preliminary assessment of the relative importance of each rarity type among endangered plant species of the Swiss flora and our results underline the need to distinguish between a regional and a global responsibility for the conservation of rare and endangered species.

Because of higher extinction rates due to human and natural factors, more basic and applied research in reproductive biology is required to preserve wild species and design proper strategies leading to sustainable populations. The objective of the review is to highlight recent, inspiring breakthroughs in wildlife reproduction science that will set directions for future research and lead to more successes in conservation biology. Despite new tools and approaches allowing a better and faster understanding of key mechanisms, we still know little about reproduction in endangered species. Recently, the most striking advances have been obtained in nonmammalian species (fish, birds, amphibians, or corals) with the development of alternative solutions to preserve fertility or new information about parental nutritional influence on embryo development. A novel way has also been explored to consider the impact of environmental changes on reproduction-the allostatic load-in a vast array of species (from primates to fish). On the horizon, genomic tools are expected to considerably change the way we study wildlife reproduction and develop a concept of "precision conservation breeding." When basic studies in organismal physiology are conducted in parallel, new approaches using stem cells to create artificial gametes and gonads, innovations in germplasm storage, and more research on reproductive microbiomes will help to make a difference. Lastly, multiple challenges (for instance, poor integration of new tools in conservation programs, limited access to study animals, or few publication options) will have to be addressed if we want reproductive biology to positively impact conservation of biodiversity.

Five types of population viability analysis (PVA) models have been developed for estimating extinction risk of endangered species. They are analytic model, deterministic single-population model, stochastic single-population model, metapopulation model and spatially explicit model. The choice of PVA model types for endangered species depends on life history of the species studied and data available on the species. Compared with other tools in conservation practice, PVA is relatively precise and quantitative tool. However, poor quality of data and unclear assumptions on populations of some endangered species could influence precision of predictions of PVA models, therefore, PVA models should be used with cautions. PVA models have been increasingly used in conservation plans and management of endangered species in western countries. It has been used for (1) predicting future population size of endangered species; (2) evaluating extinction risk of endangered species in a given time; (3) assessing conservation options and determining which options will make endangered species persistence longer; (4) exploring effects of assumptions on small population demography,and (5) guiding field data collection for endangered species. Few PVA studies have been conducted on endangered species in China, compared with the disproportionally high number of endangered species in China. There is an urgent need for building PVA models specifically for endemic endangered species and conservation issues in China.