Analyzing Iran’s Policies towards Afghan Asylum Seekers through the Lenses of Public Choice Theory

Drawing on unique sources from the Swedish Migration Agency Archive, this article examines how Afghan asylum seekers and refugees fared in their encounter with Swedish internal and external controls of people seeking protection from persecution during the Cold War. Within a theoretical framework that draws on the concept of statist logic, the history of refugeehood, interactionist sociology and critical legal studies, two key findings are presented and discussed. First, Afghan refugees and asylum seekers encountered multidirectional restrictive control measures despite Sweden’s strong support of Afghan refugees in Pakistan, and despite the low numbers of Afghan asylum applicants in Sweden. Second, a focus on how immigration controls affected one specific national group reveals a broader pattern of how internal and external controls of asylum seekers in the 1980s, under the aegis of the Swedish state, were distributed between state, non-state and international organizations. The article provides a critical history that sheds new light on the situation following the ‘refugee crisis’ of 2015–16, when over 40,000 Afghan asylum seekers entered Sweden. In doing so, the article ties in to a burgeoning development within refugee studies that seeks to include a historical perspective, since such an inclusion is necessary to identify continuities and changes that remain highly relevant for understanding, assessing and offering real alternatives to today’s dominant approaches to refugee governance, policy, experiences, social and political practices and discourses.

Asylum-seekers in Australia are subjected to restrictive access, such as to education, work, and family reunion, which can affect mental and physical health. We examined the relationship between these restrictive measures and mental health symptoms and physical activity in a sample of Iranian and Afghan asylum seekers, refugees, and immigrants in Sydney. 276 Iranian and Afghan asylum seekers, refugees, and immigrants were recruited using a probability proportional to size representative, time by location sampling frame across randomly selected Iranian and Afghan grocery shops in Sydney. The interview recorded physical activity levels (Simple Physical Activity Questionnaire); posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and trauma events (Harvard Trauma Questionnaire); depression symptoms (Hopkins Symptom Checklist) and demographics (Visa, gender, age). Cross-sectional hierarchical logistic regression examined the relationship between visa status and achieving World Health Organisation physical activity guidelines. Hierarchical linear regression examined visa status and sedentary time. Path Analysis tested whether these relationships were mediated by PTSD or depression symptoms. Forty-six percent of Iranian and Afghan respondents who had secure residency in Australia engaged in levels of moderate to vigorous activity that met the WHO recommended rates. After controlling for variables, asylum seekers (with insecure visas) were three times less likely to meet guidelines and reported an average of 30 min per day more sedentary time. Mediation analysis indicated that depression symptoms and PTSD symptoms mediated the visa status and physical activity relationship. Likewise, depression and PTSD mediated the relationship between visa status and sedentary behaviour. Insecure visa status is associated with physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour, which are influenced by psychiatric symptoms. This could have long-term physical and mental health consequences for asylum seekers. SO, WHAT?: Visa restrictions placed on people seeking asylum when they arrive in Australia could have long-term physical and mental health consequences. This could affect the quality of life for those affected, as well as placing a greater burden on the health system in the future.

Background: The International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ) is a standardized and validated measure aligned with the 11th version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) diagnostic criteria to assess post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD). It has been translated into 25 different languages, but is yet to be translated into Dari and validated for use in the Afghan population. Objective: This study aimed (1) to translate and culturally adapt the ITQ for use in Dari; (2) to assess the construct validity and composite reliability of ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD using the Dari ITQ; and (3) to examine the concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity of the Dari ITQ. Method: The Dari ITQ was validated through the completion of a set of standardized measures by 305 Afghan asylum seekers and refugees in Austria. Factorial analyses and psychometric properties of the Dari ITQ were assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), bivariate correlations, and multivariate regression. Results: Asylum seekers showed significantly higher levels of ICD-11 CPTSD symptomatology and probable diagnoses of ICD-11 PTSD, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV) PTSD, anxiety, depression, and psychological distress in comparison to refugees. CFA results supported the two-factor second-order model comprised of the PTSD and disturbances in self-organization (DSO) as the best fit to the data. The psychometric adequacy of this model in the Dari ITQ was evidenced by high factor loadings and excellent internal reliability. The Dari ITQ showed satisfactory concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity. Conclusion: The current study supports the statistical validity and cultural sensitivity of the Dari ITQ in identifying symptoms of ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD among Afghan asylum seekers and refugees.

Dear Readers, We proudly present the First Issue of the International Journal of Law in Changing World (IJLCW). We are delighted that this Issue is an example of international knowledge exchange. Authors worldwide presented their papers on current legal problems, and the Journal hadthe honor of publishing highly relevant research papers devoted to different aspects of law and regulations that the modern world faces.The Journal’s first research paper, “Architecture of university educational processes in the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic: from small data to big data and data science,” was written by Inna V. Ershova, Ekaterina E. Enkova, Vasiliy A. Laptev, and Andrey Yu. Petrakov,representing Moscow Kutafin State Law University (Russia). It focuses on the degree of influence of Big Data on building the educational process at the Kutafin State Russian Law University duringthe COVID-19 pandemic. The authors demonstrated the results of the survey and showed the influence of the collected information on administrative decision-making. They also definedthe impact ofBig Data on the architecture of the university educational process in different periods of the COVID-19 pandemic.Followingpaper,“Integration of “planetary approach” and “planetary justice” within the arctic ocean governance system to embrace the role of non-human nature in protecting the arctic marine environment” by Sabrina Hasan (East China University of Political Science and Law, China) explores how the concepts of “planetary approach” and “planetary justice” can be integrated into the Arctic Ocean governance system to embrace the role of non-human nature in protecting the Arctic marine environment. In addition, the paper analyses how the “planetary approach” with a broader mandate can implement best practices in Arctic Ocean governance.Authors from Jami University, Afghanistan –Ali Ahmad Mowahidand Fazl Ahmad Ahmadi –presented the research paper “The role of international law in protecting Afghan asylum seekers and Afghan refugees in Iran”. It aimed to examine international documents, laws, and regulations related to asylum seekers and refugees, and to explore the status of asylum seekers and refugees in international law, with a particular focus on Afghan asylum seekers in Iran. The next paper, “The Separation of Powers and Principles of State Policy,” by Tomy Michael (Universitas 17 Agustus 1945, Surabaya, Indonesia), examines the main points of the Outlines of State Policy. The author states that the principles of state policy must be understood in the context of the separation of powers, whether it is used or not, because this will determine the application of power so that separation continues on the principle of sharing.Cloudio Ardelle Hitipeuw and Fajar Sugianto (Indonesia) 's research paper “The Fulfillment of Economic Rights in Spotify: A Scoping Comparative Review Between United States and Indonesia” aimed to compare the copyright laws of Indonesia and the USA. The authors concluded that the Indonesian government must create new derivative regulations to ensure that every creator and copyright holder receives legal protection so that they can fully enjoy their economic rights.The lastpaper,“Uncharted Water: Indonesia’s Copyright Challenges in the Digital Age” by Wa Ode Zuliarti and Fitriah Faisal(Halu Oleo University, Indonesia),evaluates Indonesia's copyright framework in the digital era, focusing on its legal adaptability, enforcement effectiveness, public awareness, economic impacts, and potential insights from global best practices to enhance the creative economy and tackle digital piracy challenges. The authors conclude that Indonesia must strengthen its legal framework under Copyright Law No. 28/2014 by leveraging advanced technologies, public campaigns, and partnerships, aligning with global standards like TRIPS through enhancingenforcement, and ensuring competitiveness in the digital economy. We are sincerely thankful to all our readers, authors, reviewers, and other journal supporters. We wish everyone new outstanding achievements and hope for future cooperation. Sincerely yours. Editors-in-Chief Elizaveta Gromova and Daniel Brantes Ferreira

Background: Afghan refugees often face hardship and traumatic experiences before, during, and after migration and frequently suffer from mental health burdens. Evidence based psychological treatments for refugees mostly focus on symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), however, refugees often suffer from a variety of general health problems as well as depression and anxiety. We thus aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a transdiagnostic psychological intervention. Objective: To investigate the effectiveness of an adapted version of Problem Management Plus (aPM+) delivered by mental health professionals to adult Afghan refugees and asylum seekers. Methods: We randomly allocated 88 Afghan refugees either to aPM+ in addition to treatment as usual (aPM+/TAU) or TAU alone. APM+ comprises of six weekly 90-minute individual sessions including strategies of stress management, problem solving, behavioural activation, strengthening social support and either anger regulation or increasing self-efficacy. The primary outcome was general health (GHQ-28) post intervention. Secondary outcome measures included distress by PMLD, Complex PTSD symptoms, quality of life, self-identified problems, and integration. Results: Attrition was high: 42% of the randomized participants did not participate in the post-treatment assessment. A repeated measures per-protocol (completers only) ANCOVA evidenced a significant group × timepoint interaction for GHQ total scores [F(1, 47) = 14.80, p < .001, partial η2 = 0.24]. Post-hoc analyses showed significantly lower symptoms in the aPM+/TAU arm (n = 26) as compared to the TAU arm (n = 25) for the GHQ total scores (dz = 1.04). Most secondary outcomes significantly improved in the aPM+/TAU arm, but not in the TAU arm. Conclusion: APM+ was effective in reducing general health problems in Afghan refugees and might be considered as a first-line intervention. High drop-out rate limit the interpretations of our results, where future investigations should focus on possibilities to reduce these rates. Trial registration: Uniform Trial Number identifier: U1111-1226-3285. HIGHLIGHTS Refugees’ mental health can be strengthened with a brief psychological intervention that also focuses on skills in the context of post-migration stressors. High drop-out rates are a major challenge for future research and delivery of psychological interventions as part of health care systems to refugees and asylum seekers.

This chapter analyzes the various positions of the political factions of the Iranian political elite on socio-cultural issues. It explains the impact of the rivalry for power between the different political factions on socio-cultural developments in Iran between 1979 and 2008. The chapter discusses the socio-cultural developments during the leaderships of Khomeini, Hashemi Rafsanjani, Mohammad Khatami, and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. It focuses on the role and position of women in the IRI, the situation of the public media, and the intellectual debates on the relation between state and religion, the type of political system, the role of the clergy in politics, and on the velayat-efaqih system. The decline of the Islamic ideology combined with the failure of economic reform, confront the IRI with the greatest challenge to its legitimacy since the revolution. Both the public and the press openly question the role of Islam and the concept of the velayat-e faqih.Keywords: Hashemi Rafsanjani; Iran; IRI; Khomeini; Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; Mohammad Khatami; socio-cultural developments; velayat-e faqih

Iran–US relations – strained at the best of times since the 1979 Iranian revolution – have never been worse than during the past six years, due to the much more intense interaction between the two ...

Iran, being a neighbouringand easily accessible country, has been the primary host of Afghan refugees for the last four decades. Although Afghan asylum seekers have been living in the country for a long time, they are provided with minimal human rights protection. This articleexaminesinternational documents, laws, and regulations related to asylum seekers and refugees. It exploresthe status of asylum seekers and refugees in international law, focusingon Afghan asylum seekers in Iran. This research has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical methodto the following research question: To what extent has international law and its related instruments been effective in enhancing protections and improving the situation of Afghan refugees in Iran? The findingsreveal that, although international law has provided protective frameworks, it has not been able to compel Iran to respect the rights of Afghan asylum seekers. Domestic policies, economic conditions, and the lack of binding legal instruments have posed hindrances to effectively implementing these commitments.

Over last few years, public has become increasingly aware of fact that many asylum seekers are imprisoned by very states they flee to search of protection. In February 2002, Australian citizens, including members of church and community groups, organized demonstrations to protest Australian government's policy of mandatory (1) Earlier this year about 240 mostly Afghan asylum seekers at Australia's infamous Woomera detention centre staged a two-week hunger-strike to protest their treatment and a group of Iraqi asylum seekers reportedly dug their own graves to protest their imprisonment Woomera. (2) In U.S., religious leaders publicly criticized U.S.'s mandatory detention of arriving asylum seekers, and press and human rights groups have criticized U.S.'s detention of children--citing, most recently, detention of a disabled teenage asylum seeker from Guinea adult criminal jails for over a year. (3) In wake of September 11 attacks New York and Washington, D.C., some countries have proposed or passed harsh new laws that call for increased detention of non-citizens. The anti-immigrant rhetoric many countries has escalated, at times targeting individuals of Arab or Muslim background. Asylum seekers, often victims of human rights abuses themselves, are more vulnerable than ever current climate. The Executive Committee of UNHCR, Conclusion 44, has denounced arbitrary detention of asylum seekers, stressing that detention should normally be avoided and should be resorted to when necessary and grounds prescribed by law. This is hardly a surprise given Refugee Convention's prohibitions against restricting refugees' movements and prohibitions against arbitrary detention under International Covenant Civil and Political Rights (the ICCPR). In February 1999, UNHCR issued its Revised Guidelines Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to Detention of Asylum Seekers (the UNHCR Detention Guidelines). The UNHCR Detention Guidelines affirm that [a] s a general rule, asylum seekers should not be detained, and that the use of detention is, many instances, contrary to norms and principles of international law. (4) Urging a presumption against detention, UNHCR Detention Guidelines state that viable alternatives to detention ... should be applied first unless there is evidence to suggest that such an alternative would not be effective an individual case. When a decision to detain is made, Detention Guidelines recommend that such a decision only be imposed a non-discriminatory manner for a minimal period and that procedural guarantees be provided for, including review before a judicial or administrative body independent of detaining authorities and subsequent regular periodic reviews of necessity for continuance of detention. (5) Some states aspire to meet their obligations under international law and standards. Others do not. The articles this volume of Refuge, as well as one article to follow Volume 20.4, examine detention practices of a number of different states--closely examining mandatory detention regimes of Australia and United States, as well as detention practices of Canada, Mexico, and South Africa. Some of these articles address impact of detention vulnerable populations, including children and survivors of torture. The articles also highlight impact of post-September 11 security concerns debate over detention of asylum seekers and detention of individual asylum seekers. As detailed Jaya Ramji's article South Africa's detention system, South African law relating to detention of asylum seekers strives to meet that state's obligations under international law. But law's high aspirations on paper are not met in practice. One striking example concerns South African law's provision of automatic review of detention of asylum seekers by a judge of its High Court. …

Two decisions of Japanese court on detained Afghan asylum seekers

BackgroundThe present study examined Afghan asylum seekers’ and refugees’ self-perceived problems, and their experiences of treatment with an adapted version of the brief transdiagnostic psychological intervention “Problem Management Plus” (aPM+). Specifically, the study explored which problems trouble them most and how these problems influence their daily functioning. Further, it examined how various standardized outcome measures correlate with these subjectively perceived problems.MethodThis study is part of a larger RCT study (PIAAS study) in which 88 Afghan asylum seekers and refugees were randomly allocated either to aPM + in addition to treatment as usual (aPM+/TAU) or TAU alone. The presented study uses a multi-method approach consisting of two parts: First, we investigated participants’ self-identified problems and subjective functional impairment using quantitative and qualitative assessment in both the aPM+/TAU and TAU group (n = 88). Second, we conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with a subsample of the aPM+/TAU group (n = 24) to gain a deeper understanding of participants’ personal experiences with aPM + and to obtain suggestions for improvement. Spearman correlations were applied for quantitative data, and deductive and inductive approaches of thematic analysis were used for qualitative data.ResultsWe identified six main themes of self-perceived problems (primary post-migration living difficulties, general mental health problems, interpersonal stressors, secondary post-migration living difficulties, mental health problems specifically associated with stress, and somatic problems) and their consequences, as well as subjective functional impairment. Standardized measures of general mental health, posttraumatic psychopathology, and quality of life did not correlate with the intensity of self-perceived problems. aPM + was mostly perceived positively, and few participants had recommendations for its improvement.ConclusionThe study aimed at giving a voice to Afghan trauma survivors to inform service providers and policy makers about their needs. Based on their expertise, future interventions can be tailored to their actual needs and optimized in terms of practical use. aPM + proved to be a positively perceived intervention that reduces subjective symptom burden and facilitates daily functioning. Culture-sensitive treatments within (mental) health services should increase service utilization and improve (mental) health in the long term.

This chapter focuses on the foreign policy of the IRI towards the EU and its main member countries that are the EU countries with the most diplomatic and economic ties to Iran (Britain, France, Germany, and Italy). Since the Islamic revolution it can be assumed that Iran has needed the EU because of its need of foreign direct investment, technology, and knowhow, and its continuing difficult relationship (economic sanctions) with the US. The relations between Iran and the EU since the Islamic revolution in 1979 until today are a clear reflection of the changing foreign policy trends in the IRI. The chapter discusses the Iran-European Union relations during the leaderships of Ayatollah Khomeini, Hashemi Rafsanjani, Mohammad Khatami and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.Keywords: Ayatollah Khomeini; foreign policy; Hashemi Rafsanjani; Iran-European Union relations; Islamic revolution; Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; Mohammad Khatami

BackgroundAsylum seekers and refugees are at great risk for developing mental disorders. Afghan refugees are a particularly vulnerable group with a low average education and mental health literacy level. Traumatic experiences and hardship before and during migration are predictive of mental health problems. However, post-migration living difficulties (PMLDs) also account for a large proportion of mental distress in such populations, which, critically, are not sufficiently considered in treatment protocols and research investigations. Indeed, the evidence base for the treatment of refugees and asylum seekers is sparse and limited mainly to trauma-specific treatments, where refugees may likely suffer from other mental health problems such as depression or anxiety.Methods/designThis trial is the first evaluation of a short-term, transdiagnostic treatment protocol for treatment-seeking Afghan refugees which addresses mental health problems and PMLDs while using an adapted version of the Problem Management Plus (PM+) protocol. Here, we will investigate the efficacy of an intervention manual with a prospective, single-center, randomized, assessor-blind, two-group trial among refugees who are on a waiting list for professional mental health treatment. Furthermore, we will investigate participants’ subjective experiences with the intervention manual via in-depth interviews. One hundred twenty people will be assessed and randomly allocated to either the intervention arm or a treatment-as-usual arm. Clinical psychologists will conduct the treatment, and the sessions will take place with a Dari interpreter. The protocol consists of six 90-min sessions. The primary endpoint is the general symptom distress measure, assessed with the General Health Questionnaire 28 (GHQ-28). Secondary endpoints are the Post-Migration Living Difficulties Checklist (PMLDC), the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ), the World Health Organization Quality of Life Questionnaire (WHOQOL-BREF), the Psychological Outcome Profile (PSYCHLOPS), service and health care use (assessed with several items), and the Immigrant Integration Index (IPL-12).DiscussionThis trial may provide substantial evidence for a brief transdiagnostic psychological intervention. Here, we intend to contribute to the treatment of mental health problems among Afghan refugees. The assessment of subjective experience with this treatment manual, as well as the evaluation of its clinical applicability, may optimize treatment acceptance and outcomes across a wide range of mental health problems among refugees.Trial registrationGerman Clinical Trials Register (DRKS) registration number: DRKS00016538. Universal Trial Number: U1111-1226-3285. Registered on January 7, 2019. https://www.drks.de/drks_web/setLocale_EN.do

Afghan asylum seekers in Japan were increasingly subject to detention following the terrorist attack in New York in September 2001, yet little is reported about the net impact of the detention on their mental health. We examined this by comparing asylum seekers who had once been detained in post-migration and their non-detained counterparts. We conducted a cross-sectional survey in 2002/03 among asylum seekers from Afghanistan who were in the process of refugee application in Japan. We contacted them through their lawyers or non-governmental organizations. Of 73 contacted, 55 agreed to participate. Anxiety and depression were measured using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist 25, and posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD) and past traumatic experiences were studied with the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. These mental disorders were scored on a 4-point scale; the average symptom score of 4 indicates the worst mental health status. Respondents reported a mean (SD) of 10 (4.0) pre-migration traumas. Since their arrival in Japan, 18 (33%) had once been detained. Trauma exposures and other characteristics of those detained were not significantly different from those not detained, whereas the symptom scores of anxiety (2.91), depression (2.75) and PTSD (2.90) among those detained were higher than among those not detained (2.30, 2.41, 2.34 respectively). Multiple regression analyses revealed independent adverse effects of post-migration detention, alongside exposure to greater trauma and living alone, and the effects were comparable between these variables. The post-migration detention of Afghan asylum seekers in Japan was independently related to their worsened mental health.

Recently the Islamic Republic of Iran has been under attack, internationally and particulary in the Western media because of its nuclear program, which has triggered fears in Europe and America of Iran as a nuclear power. Beyond this focus of criticism, Iran‟s foreign policy is characterized by a great diversity of other aspects seldom mentioned in the Western media. Since the US invasion in neighboring Iraq, the country‟s regional importance has visibly increased. Politicians will have to take the position of Iran into consideration when thinking about future peace talks and perspectives for the entire region. There are, however, some significant features of Iranian foreign policy under the presidency of Mahmud Ahmadi-Nezhad, the first signs of which were outlined timidly in the time of his predecessor Khatami. These tendencies in the concept of Iran‟s foreign policy are mirrored by the growing interest in Central Asia and its eastern neighbors. Thereby the Iranian government accentuates a strategy aimed at embedding itself within a broad regional network. Afghanistan, its neighbor to the east and hitherto a rather marginal element within the overarching framework of Iran‟s foreign policy, due to its geostrategic position now plays a crucial role in the plans for the establishment of this regional network. From the Afghan point of view, Iran is one of Afghanistan‟s important neighbors; the two countries share a nine hundred kilometer-long border. In addition, since the outbreak of the Afghanistan conflict, millions of refugees have crossed this border, and there are currently more than 1.5 million Afghans living in Iran. However, the actual number of Afghan refugees and migrant workers could be much higher than this estimated figure despite repatriation efforts carried out by Iranian officials. This essay aims at analyzing structural patterns inherent in the Iranian policy towards Afghanistan and the development of this policy during the last century. The main emphasis is on the following questions: How has the Iranian government conceptualized its new Afghanistan policy since the fall