Abstract
Some of the most fundamental influences of microorganisms inhabiting the human intestinal tract are exerted during infant development and impact the maturation of intestinal mucosa and gut immune system. The impact of bacteria on the host gut immune system is partially mediated via released extracellular vesicles (EVs). The heterogeneity in EV content, size, and bacterial species origin can have an impact on intestinal cells, resulting in inflammation and an immune response, or facilitate pathogen entry into the gut wall. In mammals, maintaining the integrity of the gut barrier might also be an evolutionary function of maternal milk EVs. Recently, the usage of EVs has been explored as a novel therapeutic approach in several pathological conditions, including necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this review, we attempt to summarize the current knowledge of EV biology, followed by a discussion of the role that EVs play in gut maturation and the pathogenesis of NEC and IBD.
Highlights
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) were originally considered as intracellular residues excreted by cells to dispose of metabolic wastes [1]
Another study using a rat model showed that amniotic-fluid-derived stem cells (AF-MSC), amniotic-fluid-derived neural stem cells (AF-NSC), and neonatal enteric NSC (E-NSC)—derived exosomes are capable of significantly reducing the incidence of experimentally induced necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) [43]
Bielaszewska et al investigated the ability of EVs released during growth by enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157 to induce production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in human intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). They determined that EVs from EHEC O157 during growth can stimulate the production of IL-8 in IECs via the TLR5 and TLR4/MD-2 complex signaling pathway, followed by activation of NF-κB [104]
Summary
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) were originally considered as intracellular residues excreted by cells to dispose of metabolic wastes [1]. Biological Role and Components of EVs These tiny vesicles encapsulate a variety of molecules, including proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids. They are surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane and can be transferred in the lumen and/or within the intestinal wall without losing biological activity. Most cells and tissues are capable of excreting EVs, including hepatocytes, leukocytes, endothelial cells, and epithelial cells They can function as recipients or effectors of EV targeting. The role of EVs is well recognized in many important human pathologies, such as cardiovascular or neurodegenerative diseases [8,9] Due to their unique modalities, they have been investigated for use as biomarkers or delivery vehicles in therapeutic applications [10]. The role of infectious agents in the etiology of disturbances once believed to be non-infectious, such as insulin resistance, is increasingly being studied [15]
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