Abstract
With the exponential number of published data on neonicotinoids and fipronil during the last decade, an updated review of literature has been conducted in three parts. The present part focuses on gaps of knowledge that have been addressed after publication of the Worldwide Integrated Assessment (WIA) on systemic insecticides in 2015. More specifically, new data on the mode of action and metabolism of neonicotinoids and fipronil, and their toxicity to invertebrates and vertebrates, were obtained. We included the newly detected synergistic effects and/or interactions of these systemic insecticides with other insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, adjuvants, honeybee viruses, and parasites of honeybees. New studies have also investigated the contamination of all environmental compartments (air and dust, soil, water, sediments, and plants) as well as bees and apicultural products, food and beverages, and the exposure of invertebrates and vertebrates to such contaminants. Finally, we review new publications on remediation of neonicotinoids and fipronil, especially in water systems. Conclusions of the previous WIA in 2015 are reinforced; neonicotinoids and fipronil represent a major threat worldwide for biodiversity, ecosystems, and all the services the latter provide.
Highlights
In January 2015, a comprehensive set of papers on the environmental impacts of neonicotinoids and fipronil was published (Bijleveld van Lexmond et al 2015)
The first review paper deals with the mode of action of neonicotinoids and fipronil, their metabolism, synergies with other pesticides, degradation products and their contamination of the environment, including new insecticides launched to the market that had not been covered in the previous review
The neonicotinoid family has grown to 13 compounds including fourth-generation neonicotinoids and new derivatives
Summary
In January 2015, a comprehensive set of papers on the environmental impacts of neonicotinoids and fipronil was published (Bijleveld van Lexmond et al 2015). Usaj et al (2014) measured the growth rates of single deletion mutants of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the presence of imidacloprid, acetamiprid, or thiacloprid as well as their formulations Confidor, Mospilan, and Actara They observed that neonicotinoid active substances have a common negative impact on the cell wall organization and biogenesis in yeast and, in most cases, formulations exert more pronounced effects than active substances themselves (Usaj et al 2014). Additional new data included here concern mainly cis-neonicotinoids and fourthgeneration neonicotinoids, while no extensive additional literature has since been published on newly discovered degradation products and metabolites of imidacloprid, nitenpyram, clothianidin, thiamethoxam, dinotefuran, acetamiprid, thiacloprid, and fipronil. TP1, 9-nitro-1-[(pyridin-3-yl)methyl]-2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-1H-imidazo[1,2-a]azepine-(2 or 3),5-diol TP2, 2,3-dihydroxy-9-nitro-2,3,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-imidazo[1,2-a]azepine-5,8-dione TP3, 2,3,9-trihydroxyhexahydro-1H-imidazo[1,2-a]azepine-5,8-dione TP4, 1-{1-[(6-chloropyridin-3-yl)methyl]-(4 or 5)-hydroxyimidazolidin-2-yl}-3-hydroxypropan-1-one TP5, 1-[(6-chloropyridin-3-yl)methyl]imidazolidine-2-carbaldehyde TP6, 1-[(6-chloropyridin-3-yl)methyl]-(4 or 5)-hydroxyimidazolidine-2-carboxylic acid TP7, 2-chloro-8-hydroxy-7,8-dihydro-1,6-naphthyridine-6(5H)-carbaldehyde TP8, (2Z)-2-(3-hydroxy-1-nitrosopropylidene)-(1 or 3)-[(pyridin-3-yl)methyl]imidazolidin-4-ol TP9, (2Z)-2-(2-hydroxy-1-nitrosoethylidene)-(1 or 3)-[(pyridin-3-yl)methyl]imidazolidin-4-ol TP10, (2Z)-2-(2-hydroxy-1-nitrosoethylidene)-1-[(pyridin-3-yl)methyl]imidazolidine-4,5-diol TP11, 1-[(pyridin-3-yl)methyl]imidazolidine-4,5-diol M1, (1-(6-chloronicotinyl)-2- nitromethylene-imidazolidine), (nitromethylene)imidazole,
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