An Overview of 3D Printing Technologies for Food Fabrication

Chapter 1 2The food sector always explores new technologies to produce safe, healthy, delicious, and sustainable food products that fulfill the evolving needs of consumers.Personalized foods with customizable design, sensory properties, and nutritional value are attracting growing interests from both individuals and food manufacturers (Derossi et al., 2020).A personalized sensory experience can lead to wellbeing and enjoyment of various food products, while a personalized diet can potentially improve the nutritional intake and thus health.Producing personalized foods requires extensive understanding of food ingredient functionality, processing parameter optimizations, and automated production techniques that allow ondemand preparation.A flexible and autonomous production tool is therefore needed to achieve such production need, and among many technologies, 3D printing presents itself as an enabling method for such personalized food production (Derossi et al., 2021). 3D printing for food productionOver the past decades, 3D printing has matured into a rapid production technique in various manufacturing fields including aerospace, construction, and pharmaceutics.3D printing offers design flexibility and on-demand production that decouples manufacturing from large equipment and fixed production schedules.Among its applications, 3D food printing was first introduced by Periard et al. (2007) in the "Fab@Home" 3D printing model.The concept of a generalized 3D printer was developed to print a wide range of materials including foods based on the extrusion-based printing mechanism similar to 3D printing thermoplastics.Other than extrusion-based 3D printing, technologies such as powder-bed 3D printing also have been explored for food applications (Jonkers et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2022).However, as its name suggests, powder-bed 3D printing produces food structures using powdered foods, which makes its application unfeasible with most non-powder food materials.Therefore, this thesis will focus on extrusion-based 3D food printing because of its popularity and compatibility to various food materials.To fabricate food structures using the extrusion-based 3D printing principle, food materials are generally first filled into a holding vessel such as a syringe, extruded through a small nozzle (with a typical diameter of 0.5 -2 mm), and then deposited onto a motorized platform to print a food structure layer-by-layer.The extrusion-based printing mechanism is intuitive and analogous to piping icing onto a cake.In the context of 3D printing, the "piping" action is automated with a syringe pump and a motorized stage.Generally, the Chapter 1 4 Advances and challenges of 3D food printingAfter experimenting with ready-to-print food materials, food technologists focused on formulating 3D printable food materials from various ingredients.For example, different food hydrocolloids (carrageenan, alginate, xanthan, etc.) have been used to formulate hydrogels and sometimes encapsulated systems for 3D food printing applications (Liu et al., 2019).Using hydrocolloids changes the rheological properties of food printing materials and improves the stability of 3D-printed food structures (Kim et al., 2018).Sensory evaluations of 3D-printed foods were also reported in various studies, to show the added values of using 3D printing.By customizing food designs, 3D-printed foods can provide unique sensory experiences by altering the texture and flavor perceptions of the consumers.Specific applications of 3D food printing emerged towards special consumer groups.3Dprinted foods are formulated and fabricated for patients with dysphagia to accommodate swallowing difficulties with soft and flowable food materials with an appealing appearance (Pant et al., 2021).Personalized snack bars were 3D-printed and served to Dutch military personnels as an exploratory study of on-demand food personalization (Caulier et al., 2020).Moreover, with the design flexibility in the food printing materials, functional materials have been prepared to achieve 4D printing applications of foods.On top of the 3 physical dimensions, time is here considered as the 4th dimension: 4D printed foods can show changes in color, shape, and mechanical behavior (Teng et al., 2021).Previous research focused on formulating suitable food printing material and developing prototypes of personalized 3D-printed foods (Derossi et al., 2021).These studies were often realized based on extensive trial-and-error experiments, which leads to excessive investment in time and raw materials.Minimal research effort has been devoted to automatically optimize 3D food printing parameters for a diverse range of food materials.Moreover, the performance of 3D food printing is often manually inspected by experienced operators, making it difficult to standardize and scale up to meet the growing demand of the market.The relatively inefficient operation of 3D food printing makes it challenging to establish streamlined production of personalized foods.Even with successful proof-ofconcept applications, 3D food printing at this moment still lacks the availability of robust software and hardware (i.e.3D printer, controller, and accessories) to achieve timely and accurate printing of foods that are ready for the consumer market.Chapter 2 Formulated food inks for extrusion-based 3D printing of personalized foods: A mini review

Three-dimensional (3D) food printing technology is rapidly emerging and offers endless innovation opportunities for the food business. The introduction of 3D food printing technology is transforming the food industry and providing new perspectives on food innovation. This technology allows for complex food compositions, customized nutritional options, and innovation, such as alternative meat and organoids. The potential of remote and automated food production opens up new possibilities for future food production. This review aims to provide an update on the field by highlighting the different technologies used in 3D food printing and their advantages and challenges. To this end, this review explores the integration of 3D food printing to address nutritional foods and 3D cell culture challenges. By providing a comprehensive introduction to current knowledge, this review provides valuable insights into the revolutionary impact of 3D food printing on the food industry and paves the way for future developments and applications.

The recent development of three‐dimensional (3D) food printing technology is having an important impact on the food processing sector. This cutting‐edge method permits the manufacturing of foods with outstanding customization in terms of both look and nutritional profile. Several methods have been applied to demonstrate how 3D printing can be adopted in the food processing sector. These methods include selective laser sintering, hot‐melt extrusion, and inkjet printing. In contrast, high‐temperature techniques are not appropriate for constructing 3D representations of nutrients that are sensitive to changes in temperature. Cold extrusion is an effective alternative approach for 3D printing; however, its successful implementation requires the inclusion of rheology substitutes and the careful standardization of different elements involved in the process. In order to overcome this constraint, we utilized the technique of direct ink writing for 3D printing of the product by cold‐extrusion. This was achieved by using a combination for the different material formulations. This research provides confirmation on the feasibility of using 3D printing technology to print peanut based chenna, with the incorporation of skim milk (SM) powder, while maintaining a minimal material formulation. The flow properties of printing material compositions can be accurately explained with the R2 > 0.996 Power‐law and Herschel–Bulkley model. The flow behavior index, denoted as n, (n < 1), suggesting that the fluid exhibits shear thinning properties. The value of the loss modulus (G″) for material formulation was significantly lower than that of the storage modulus (G′). It was found that the storage modulus and the viscous modulus both emerged higher with increasing angular frequency. The formulation of the material, with its higher storage modulus indicating better durability, enables printing of a broad spectrum of food items. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the enhancement of printability in food compositions through the utilization of peanut‐based chenna. In order to achieve consistent and accurate results at different ratios (1:1, 2:1, and 3:1, w/w), a comprehensive evaluation was conducted on several printing parameters. These parameters included printing formulations, height of the nozzle, diameter, or size of nozzle, printing rate of speed, extrusion motor speed, and rate of extrusion. The extrusion printing parameters were adjusted to achieve optimal printing conditions for a 2:1 composition of SM powder and peanut‐based chenna. These parameters included the height of nozzle (0.314 mm), size of nozzle (0.4 mm), printing speed (30 mm/s), extrusion rate (5.21 mm3/s), extrusion motor speed (240 rpm), and extruder pressure (5 bar).Practical applicationsThe emergence of food printing is a game‐changer for the culinary world. 3D food printing has expanded the creative options available to chefs, bakers, and entrepreneurs in the food industry by making it possible to print unique and complex designs directly onto edible substrates. In this research, we looked into the material compositions, time standardization, extrusion rate, printing speed, and rheological properties of a food formulations. The present research uses a 3D food printer to explore the unexplored possibilities of a combination of peanut‐based chenna and SM for the purpose of product development.

Summary Three‐dimensional (3D) food printing is a digital food engineering method that has a remarkable application potential in long‐term manned spaceflight. Extrusion‐based 3D food printing, among the available 3D food printing techniques utilised in the food industry, is one of the most suitable printing methods for manned spaceflight. Extrusion‐based 3D food printing could suffice most of the energy and personalised nutritional requirements of astronauts during long‐term stay in space by utilising fruits, vegetables, meat products, and nutrients as printing materials. However, 3D food printing in manned spaceflight is still limited by technologies and costs such as printing materials, microgravity, post‐processability of food, and engineering transportation under the existing technical conditions. Therefore, this article reviews the 3D food printing and manned spaceflight technologies that are currently available and discusses the challenges involved in 3D food printing in manned spaceflight, thus providing a theoretical basis for future 3D food printing for space missions.

In recent years, three-dimensional (3D) food printing has seen substantial advancements, facilitating the production of highly customizable food products by integrating complex design and functional elements. This technology allows for fine-tuning visual characteristics, nutritional content, texture, and organoleptic properties according to individual consumer needs. Recently, 3D food printing has been used to encapsulate bioactive compounds to increase the nutritional value of food products. In addition, 3D printing has been explored for developing meat and cheese alternatives, cell-cultured meat, and scaffold development in cellular agriculture to obtain more efficient and personalized processes for food production. This review systematically examines recent progress in 3D food printing, focusing mainly on the applications in the domains mentioned above, and discusses the challenges and future research directions. Thus, this review can guide future research to achieve better 3D printed products using these emerging methods.

The review's objectives were to discuss the understanding of 3D food printing technology, a new way of manufacturing foods, and how this technology can be applicable in the food processing industry. The 3D food printing provides a wide domain of food and nutrition-based applications. The different three-dimensional shapes of a food can be developed without the utilization of any mold by using 3D printing technology. Many industries use this technology to manufacture many distinct products. However, utilizing this technology in food processing to manufacture new foods, such as plant-based meat analogues, represents a new trend. So, it is important to understand the principle of the 3D food printing technology for applying this technology in the food processing industry properly. In this review, the mechanism of 3D food printing, evolution of this technology, ingredients compatible for this technology, pros and cons of this technology and the quality evaluation of the 3D printed foods were discussed in detail. Also, the study provided details regarding the available 3D food printers, specifications, and their price. Achieving the exact texture of the 3D printed foods prepared by conventional cooking methods is a steep challenge for this technology. 3D food printers can produce complex food models, and this technology can design unique food patterns. Selection of a printing method is important because a 3D food printing technique can be an extrusion-based printing, selective sintering printing (SLS) method, inkjet printing and binder jetting and each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Pizzas, cookies, chocolates/candies, plant-based meat/fish analogues and many more customized food products can be manufactured using a 3D food printer. Overall, 3D food printing technology has great potential as a cooking method in the food industry.

Owing to COVID-19, the world has advanced faster in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, along with the 3D printing technology that has achieved innovation in personalized manufacturing. Three-dimensional printing technology has been utilized across various fields such as environmental fields, medical systems, and military materials. Recently, the 3D food printer global market has shown a high annual growth rate and is a huge industry of approximately one billion dollars. Three-dimensional food printing technology can be applied to various food ranges based on the advantages of designing existing food to suit one’s taste and purpose. Currently, many countries worldwide produce various 3D food printers, developing special foods such as combat food, space food, restaurants, floating food, and elderly food. Many people are unaware of the utilization of the 3D food printing technology industry as it is in its early stages. There are various cases using 3D food printing technology in various parts of the world. Three-dimensional food printing technology is expected to become a new trend in the new normal era after COVID-19. Compared to other 3D printing industries, food 3D printing technology has a relatively small overall 3D printing utilization and industry size because of problems such as insufficient institutionalization and limitation of standardized food materials for 3D food printing. In this review, the current industrial status of 3D food printing technology was investigated with suggestions for the improvement of the food 3D printing market in the new normal era.

Much is promised in relation to the use of three-dimensional (3D) food printing to create visually appealing texture-modified foods for people with dysphagia, but little is known of its feasibility. This study aimed to explore the perspective of allied health professionals on the feasibility of using 3D food printing to improve quality of life for people with dysphagia. Fifteen allied health professionals engaged in one of four 2-hr online focus groups to discuss 3D food printing for people with dysphagia. They discussed the need to address the visual appeal of texture-modified foods and watched a video of 3D food printing to inform their discussions on its feasibility. Focus group data were transcribed verbatim, de-identified, and analyzed using thematic content analysis. Participants verified summaries of the researchers' interpretation of the themes in the data. Participants suggested that 3D food printing could improve the mealtime experience for people with dysphagia but noted several barriers to its feasibility, including the time and effort involved in printing the food and in cleaning the printer. They were not convinced that 3D-printed food held higher visual appeal or looked enough like the "real food" it represented. Allied health professionals considered that 3D food printing could benefit people with dysphagia by reducing the negative impacts of poorly presented texture-modified foods. However, they also considered that feasibility barriers could impede uptake and use of 3D food printers. Further research should consider the views of people with dysphagia and address barriers reported in this study.

Development of plant-based meat analogs using 3D printing: Status and opportunities

Starch-based materials have viscoelasticity, viscous film-forming, dough pseudoplasticity, and rheological properties, which possess the structural characteristics (crystal structure, double helix structure, and layered structure) suitable for three-dimensional (3D) food printing inks. 3D food printing technology has significant advantages in customizing personalized and precise nutrition, expanding the range of ingredients, designing unique food appearances, and simplifying the food supply chain. Precision nutrition aims to consider individual nutritional needs and individual differences, which include special food product design and personalized precise nutrition, thus expanding future food resources, then simplifying the food supply chain, and attracting extensive attention in food industry. Different types of starch-based materials with different structures and rheological properties meet different 3D food printing technology requirements. Starch-based materials suitable for 3D food printing technology can accurately deliver and release active substances or drugs. These active substances or drugs have certain regulatory effects on the gut microbiome and diabetes, so as to maintain personalized and accurate nutrition.

About 15-25% of aging population suffers from swallowing difficulties, and this creates an increasing market need for food mass customization. Food industry is investigating mass customization techniques to meet individual needs on taste, nutrition and mouthfeel. Three dimensional (3D) food printing is a potential solution to overcome drawbacks of current food customization techniques such as lower production efficiency and high manufacturing cost. This study introduces the first generation food printer concept designs and functional prototypes that target to revolutionize customized food fabrication by 3D printing (3DP). Different from robotics-based food manufacturing technologies designed to automate manual processes for mass production, 3D food printing integrates 3DP and digital gastronomy technique to customize food products. This introduces artistic capabilities into domestic cooking, and extends customization capabilities to industrial culinary sector. Their applications in domestic cooking or catering services can not only provide an engineering solution for customized food design and personalized nutrition control, but also have potential to reconfigure customized food supply chains. In this paper, the selected prototypes are reviewed based on fabrication platforms and printing materials. A detailed discussion on specific 3DP technologies and their associate dispensing/printing process for 3D customized food fabrication with single and multi-material applications are reported. Lastly, impacts of food printing on customized food fabrication, personalized nutrition, food supply chain, and food processing technologies are reported and discussed.

The contradiction between the growing demand from consumers for "nutrition & personalized" food and traditional industrialized food production has consistently been a problem in the elderly diet that researchers face and discuss. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing could potentially offer a solution to this problem. This article reviews the recent research on 3D food printing, mainly including the use of different sources of protein to improve the performance of food ink printing, high internal phase emulsion or oleogels as a fat replacement and nutrition delivery system, and functional active ingredients and the nutrition delivery system. In our opinion, 3D food printing is crucial for improving the appetite and dietary intake of the elderly. The critical obstacles of 3D-printed food for the elderly regarding energy supplements, nutrition balance, and even the customization of the recipe in a meal are discussed in this paper. By combining big data and artificial intelligence technology with 3D food printing, comprehensive, personalized, and customized geriatric foods, according to the individual traits of each elderly consumer, will be realized via food raw materials-appearance-processing methods. This article provides a theoretical basis and development direction for future 3D food printing for the elderly.

Three-dimensional (3D) food printing technology combines 3D printing and food manufacturing. Rapidly increasing number of publications on various aspects of 3D food printing indicate the importance of this technology to food industry. The potential of delivering personalized products tailored to meet the taste preferences and specific dietary needs is one of the reasons for increasing researches in this technology. Currently there is an absence of a systematic review on the functional 3D printing. Also, there is no review on four-dimensional (4D) food printing concept that has emerged recently. This paper systematically reviews the functional ingredients used for creating printable food formula and their functions, including physiological functions, beneficial for health and physico-chemical functions, affecting the quality of 3D printing. In addition, it analyzes the functions of internal structures used or developed during 3D printing (infill structure and infill density) and their effects on texture properties of 3D printed food. Finally, it also introduces the concept of 4D food printing and summarizes the current advances in this novel technology.

PurposeThree-dimensional (3D) food printing is an innovative technology used to customize food products through the integration of digital technology and food ingredients. The purpose of this study is to assess the current state of research in the field of 3D food printing, identify trending topics and identify promising future research directions.Design/methodology/approachThis bibliometric review systematically evaluates the field of 3D food printing using data from published literature in the Web of Science database. After reference screening, 812 articles were included in the analysis.FindingsThe result reveals that research in 3D food printing primarily focuses on the optimization and characterization of mechanical and rheological properties of food inks and that post-printing processing, such as laser treatment, has emerged recently as an important consideration in 3D food printing. However, extant works lack animal and human studies that demonstrate the functionality of 3D-printed food.Originality/valueThis sophisticated bibliometric analysis uncovered the most studied current research topics and the leading figures in the area of 3D food printing, providing promising future research directions.

Three-dimensional (3D) food printing represents an innovative additive manufacturing technology that addresses global concerns related to food waste, resource depletion, climate change, and food insecurity, while providing personalized nutrition and a sustainable food system. Agricultural by-products are suitable food ingredients for 3D food printing as they are economical and rich in bioactive compounds. However, there is a research gap in utilizing agricultural by-products and 3D food printing for nutraceutical applications. This comprehensive review aims to synthesize and critically analyze the various functional dynamics of 3D food printing, agricultural by-products, their nutraceutical properties, and applications, with a focus on neurocognitive health. The methodology employed a novel approach by integrating the keyword co-occurrence analysis and the PRISMA 2020 guidelines for literature selection. Initially, 864 reports were identified and, based on screening, 96 records were included in this study. The findings revealed that agricultural by-products are valuable sources rich in total phenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and other bioactive compounds, making them a suitable low-cost ingredient enhancing neurocognition. The review assessed the potential of 3D food printing technology to bridge the gap in utilizing the bioactive compounds present in agricultural by-products. It is a potential strategy to provide customized nutrition for underexplored applications like neurodevelopmental disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, mood, psychiatric, functional, and structural disorders. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.