An Examination of Brand Management in High-Performance Sport

Abstract

The development of social media platforms had an immense global impact on the delivery and consumption of sports (Filo, Lock, & Karg, 2015), which placed a new meaning to the role and importance of the personal brands of athletes. The change from one-way (e.g., news reports, commercials) to two-way communication between athletes and consumers enabled by social media has opened up a completely different marketing world for athlete branding (Ballouli & Hutchinson, 2010). However, the global reach and potential of personal branding also increased the competition, which makes it more important than ever to differentiate and build a distinctive personal brand (Viţelar, 2019). The creation and management of brand identity are the foundations of any branding process (Aaker, 1996). The clearer the brand identity the athlete communicates, the easier it is for the consumer to form a congruent brand image. However, most research on athlete brands is focussed on brand image (consumer perspective). This not only leaves a theoretical vacuum on the brand identity of athletes but also on the congruence between the two perspectives. The lack of understanding of brand identity and brand congruence is concerning as athletes face increased pressures to utilise social media as a personal branding tool. Consistent with calls to examine athlete branding by combining athlete and consumer viewpoints (cf., Lobpries, Bennett, & Brison, 2017), this theoretical and practical knowledge gap presented an opportunity for research on the personal brands of athletes focussing on the insider perspective. Therefore, the purpose of this PhD thesis was threefold: (1) to investigate the current status of research on athlete brands and verify knowledge gaps in the existing literature; (2) to identify and explore the items and dimensions of athlete brand identity and develop a scale to measure the athlete brand from the athlete as well as the consumer perspective; and (3) to test the validity and practicability of the developed scale and introduce athlete brand congruence to measure comparisons between athlete and consumer perspectives of the athlete’s personal brand. Study 1 reports a systematic quantitative literature review (SQLR) that was designed to identify and qualitatively evaluate all relevant athlete brand research. This review built the foundation of the thesis by identifying gaps within the existing literature. Sixty-three articles met the inclusion criteria of the SQLR, which followed processes established by Denyer and Tranfield (2009) and Pickering and Byrne (2014). Results confirmed and substantiated the lack of research from the athlete’s perspective (i.e., athlete brand identity) and supported the need for further investigation on athlete branding. The focus of Study 2 was to identify the items and dimensions of athlete brand identity and to develop the athlete brand identity scale (ABIdS). This was achieved using a two-step, mixed-method process. First, a list of 112 items was collated from the literature identified in the SQLR. The relevance and importance of these items to the brand identity of athletes were then evaluated with the help of 10 athlete brand experts. Second, the remaining 74 items were tested on an athlete and consumer sample (n=194) in form of an online questionnaire. Factor analysis and Rasch analysis were conducted to further reduce the items, identify underlying common factors and assess item measurement properties to form a concise scale which best represented athlete brand identity. The result was the development of the ABIdS that consists of 33 items forming four athlete brand identity dimensions: Athletic Integrity (12 items), Athletic Success (9 items), Fan Engagement (7 items), and Character Traits (5 items). Study 3 tested and evaluated the validity and practicability of the ABIdS. Consumers (n=794) evaluated the brands of five current Australian elite athletes using the ABIdS. These athletes also assessed their own brand using the same scale. Statistical analyses confirmed the validity and reliability of the scale. However, one item (wellconditioned body) was removed from the Athletic Success dimension to resolve statistical inconsistencies. Collecting data from athletes and consumers on the same scale enabled the analysis of athlete brand congruence based on Musante et al.’s (1999) fit measure. Low congruence scores reflected low cohesiveness between brand identity items sent and the way these items were processed as images by consumers. These low congruence scores were further investigated and the specific items responsible for the disparity between the two perceptions were identified. From a practical standpoint, the ABIdS provides detailed information to brand insiders, such as athletes, sports marketers and high-performance sport managers, on the key elements required to develop a successful personal brand identity. These elements can be derived from the four dimensions of the scale and associated characteristics. Practical application and analysis of the ABIdS and the brand congruence measure delivers results that help athletes to develop targeted strategies to improve the status of their brand by providing guidance and pinpointing areas of improvement. The results of this PhD fill the identified knowledge gap on athlete brand identity and its relationship to brand image in form of brand congruence. Identifying and defining the four dimensions of athlete brand identity and developing the ABIdS represents a theoretical advancement in the discipline of sports marketing due to the particular focus on the athlete perspective throughout the scale development process. In combination, the ABIdS and the athlete brand congruence measure provide effective assessments of athlete brands, which presents a new approach for future research in this domain. This PhD thesis also contributes to the theoretical concepts that guided the three studies by focussing on conscious brand identity creation as the driver of brand image (cf., Aaker, 1996). Based on Aaker’s assumption, this thesis used a multidisciplinary approach to combine Goffman’s (1959) self-identity framework (sociology) and Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) social identity theory (social psychology) to rationalise the personal brands of athletes as intentionally managed, socially constructed and dynamic in nature. Extending the combination of these disciplines to examine athlete brands in the age of social media proved particularly relevant and presents opportunities to guide future research. Overall, the knowledge gained through the three sequential studies in the context of this PhD thesis provides evidence that will help to positively influence the development of successful athlete brand strategies and advances the theoretical understanding of this research domain.