An analysis of the co-benefits of the supply–demand for multiple ecosystem services for guiding sustainable urban development

Abstract

It is widely acknowledged that synergetic supplies of multiple ecosystem services (ESs) can improve the efficiency of multifunctional landscape management. However, even though the satisfaction of demands for ESs clearly and comprehensively reflects their efficiency, little is known about the efficiency of co-benefits for multiple ESs when both the supply and demand sides are considered. For the first time, we analyzed the co-benefits of the supply of and demand for multiple ESs in urban areas according to the degrees of synergy found among five typical urban ESs. We found that although supplies of multiple ESs were synergetic, and the degrees of synergy of single ES supply–demand were positively correlated with each other, the co-benefits of supply–demand for multiple ESs were not substantial. We also found that the demand for ESs critically affects ES efficiency, which should therefore be assessed from the perspectives of both supply and demand. Any initiative that focuses on just one aspect cannot bring about genuine synergy; nor can it prompt the re-entry of the natural ecosystem in urban areas into a positive cycle. We elucidated the different patterns of synergy that foster a balance in the supply and demand of multiple ESs, which can provide a basis for their differentiation and for grouped management approaches to enhance the co-benefits of the supply of and demand for multiple ESs. Evidently, the supply side of ESs requires attention, especially the key aspect of ecological processes that affect the synergy of ES supplies. Consequently, an in-depth exploration of the key ecological process affecting ES supplies and their synergy is warranted in the future.