Ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and particulate matter emissions from California high-rise layer houses

Ammonia (NH3) emissions were monitored from ten commercial layer houses in Iowa (IA, six)and Pennsylvania (PA, four) for a full year, with two different housing and management schemes. Highriselayer houses (four in IA and two in PA) stored manure in the lower levels for a year, whereas manurebelt houses (two in each state) had the manure removed either daily (IA) or twice a week (PA). Dietarymanipulation consisting of two levels of crude protein (CP): standard CP (Ctrl) and essential amino acids(AA) supplemented lower CP (Trt), was evaluated with the four high-rise houses in IA, two houses pertype of diet. Ammonia and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations of exhaust air in each house weremeasured weekly or bi-weekly using portable monitoring units (PMUs), with each data collection episodelasting two consecutive days. Ammonia levels were measured using periodically purged electrochemicalsensors. Ventilation rates were determined by calibrated carbon dioxide mass balance method, based onthe latest metabolic rate data for the laying hens. There existed substantial diurnal variations in ammonia emission rate (ER) for the high-rise layer houses but less variation for the manure-belt houses. Incomparison, seasonal variations in ER were relatively small. Manure handling practices and dietmanipulation all demonstrated effects of various degrees on ammonia emissions rate. Specifically, NH3emission rates during 12-month monitoring period averaged 0.90 and 0.81 g/d-hen, respectively, for thehigh-rise layer houses with Ctrl and Trt diet in Iowa; 0.83 g/d-hen for the high-rise layer houses inPennsylvania; and 0.068 and 0.084 g/d-hen, respectively, for the belt houses in Iowa and Pennsylvania.The results contribute to the U.S. national inventory on ammonia emissions from animal productionoperations, and quantify the dynamics and magnitude of ammonia emissions from U.S. layer houses asaffected by housing type, manure management, diet manipulation and geographical location.

The emission rates (ER) of ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and particulate matter (PM) (PM2.5, PM10, and total suspended particulate, TSP) were monitored at two broiler houses in California from September 2007 to October 2009. Each of the two identical buildings housed an average of 21,000 broilers raised in 46 d growth cycles with a space allowance of 1430 cm2 bird-1 and an average market weight of 2.65 kg. The litter in each house was partially replaced after the first and second flocks and completely replaced after the third flock in a three-flock litter management cycle. The environment of each house was controlled by 11 single-speed ventilation fans, two evaporative cooling cells, and 17 heaters. The average daily mean (±SD) ERs of ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide were 0.503 ±0.436, 78.3 ±47.5, and 0.00289 ±0.00251 g d-1 bird-1, respectively. The average daily mean ER of PM10 was 45.0 ±39.0 mg d-1 bird-1. The influences of environmental conditions and other factors on ERs were assessed. The ERs were influenced by broiler weight or age, ambient temperature, and litter status, with the exception of PM, which was not influenced by litter status.

Emissions of ammonia, carbon dioxide and particulate matter from cage-free layer houses in California

Airborne emissions from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) have the potential to pose a risk to human health and the environment. Here, we present an assessment of the emission, dispersion, and health-related impact of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emitted from a 300-head, full-scale dairy farm with an exercise yard in Beijing, China. By monitoring the referred gas emissions with a dynamic flux chamber for seven consecutive days, we examined their emission rates. An annual hourly emission time series was constructed on the basis of the measured emission rates and a release modification model. The health risk of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions around the dairy farm was then determined using atmospheric dispersion modeling and exposure risk assessment. The body mass-related mean emission factors of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide were 2.13 kg a−1 AU−1 and 24.9 g a−1 AU−1, respectively (one animal unit (AU) is equivalent to 500 kg body mass). A log-normal distribution fitted well to ammonia emission rates. Contour lines of predicted hourly mean concentrations of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide were mainly driven by the meteorological conditions. The concentrations of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide at the fence line were below 10 μg m−3 and 0.04 μg m−3, respectively, and were 2–3 orders of magnitude lower than the current Chinese air quality standards for such pollutants. Moreover, the cumulative non-carcinogenic risks (HI) of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide were 4 orders of magnitudes lower than the acceptable risk levels (HI = 1). Considering a health risk criterion of 1E-4, the maximum distance from the farm fence line to meet this criterion was nearly 1000 m towards north-northeast. The encompassed area of the contour lines of the ambient concentration of ammonia is much larger than that of hydrogen sulfide. However, the contour lines of the ammonia health risk are analogous to those of hydrogen sulfide. In general, the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from the dairy farm are unlikely to cause any health risks for the population living in the neighborhood.

Odor, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emission data were collected from three phototrophic and three non-phototrophic anaerobic swine lagoons in eastern Nebraska from May 27th to June 18th (late spring) and from July 7th to August 13th (summer). The greatest odor, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia emission rates were from non-phototrophic lagoons during late spring (24.5 OU m-2 s-1, 3.2 µg-H2S m-2 s-1, 34.9 kg NH3-N ha-1 d-1, respectively). Non-phototrophic lagoon odor, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emission rates were much higher in late spring than summer (24.5 vs. 4.8 OU m-2 s-1, 34.9 vs. 18.0 kg NH3-N ha-1 d-1, 3.2 vs. 0.3 µg-H2S m-2 s-1, respectively). Odor and ammonia emission rates from phototrophic lagoons were relatively constant from late spring to summer (9.4 vs. 4.0 OU m-2 s-1 and 23.0 vs. 16.5 kg NH3-N ha-1 d-1, respectively), but hydrogen sulfide emissions were higher in late spring than summer (1.9 vs. 0.1 µg-H2S m-2 s-1).

Gaseous and particulate matter emissions from two California high-rise layer houses were continuously measured and monitored for two years from October 2007 to October 2009. Each house had 34,000 laying hens in cages. The monitoring site was set up in compliance with a US EPA-approved site monitoring plan, standard operating procedures, and quality assurance project plan. The results showed the daily mean emission rates of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide were 0.97 g/hd-d, 1.28 mg/hd-d and 91.4 g/hd-d, respectively. The daily mean emission rates of PM2.5 PM10 and total suspended particles (TSP) were 5.9, 33.3, and 78.0 mg/hd-d, respectively. The influence of environmental conditions, ventilation rate, manure management practices on various emissions rates are presented.

Dietary manipulation can substantially lower ammonia emissions from laying hen manure. However, such dietary changes would be of little value if the changes cause inferior egg production and hen performance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a diet containing EcoCalTM (gypsum and zeolite), which has been shown to lower ammonia emission in laboratory-scale testing, on hen production performance in commercial high-rise laying hen houses. A companion paper describes the effect of the EcoCal diet on ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide emissions. Two high-rise houses, each containing approximately 255,000 hens, were used for the study. Hens in one house were fed a diet containing 3.5% EcoCal, whereas hens in the other house were fed an EcoCal-free, control diet. The cooperating farm provided the production records. The comparative production data have been collected since October 2006 and the study is scheduled to continue for another 2 years (i.e., through 2009). The period was broken into 2-wk increments for data analyses. Feed consumption was higher for the EcoCal-fed hens from 100 to 105 weeks of age. Egg production was transiently lower for the EcoCal-fed hens during the 92 to 93 wk-of-age period and egg weight was lower during the 96 to 97 wk-of-age period. Consequently, egg mass was lower during both the 92 to 93 and 96 to 97 wk-of-age periods. Feed conversion was more favorable for the control-fed hens from 100 to 103 wk of age. Mortality was lower for the EcoCal-fed hens from 92 to 93 and 100 to 105 wk of age. Results from December 2006 through May 2007 presented in this paper show mostly transient differences in production parameters between the dietary regimens. Future analyses will help better determine or affirm the effects of the EcoCal diet.

Ammonia (NH3) emission rates (ER) of two commercial manure-belt (MB) layer houses in Iowa were monitored for a full year. Hen manure was removed daily from the MB houses. Ammonia and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations of incoming and exhaust air streams were measured using custom-designed portable monitoring units (PMUs) that shared similar performance to EPA-approved measurement apparatus. Ventilation rates of the houses were determined by calibrated CO2 mass balance using the latest metabolic rate data for modern laying hens. The data were collected bi-weekly throughout the year, with each collection episode lasting two consecutive days. A total of 108 independent house-day measurements or 5,184 semi-hourly emission data points were involved for the layer houses. Ammonia ER showed considerable diurnal variation, with the peak occurring during manure removal. Data from the 12-month monitoring revealed the NH3 ER (mean standard error) of 0.054 ±0.0035 g NH3 d1 hen'(varying from 0.002 to 0.195 g NH3 d1 hen1) for the belt layer houses with manure removed daily. Seasonal variations in NH3 ER were less noticeable, with the mean ER of 0.042, 0.060, 0.054, and 0.057 g NH3 d1 hen1 for the spring, summer, fall and winter season, respectively. Results of the study contribute to the U.S. national inventory on NH3 emissions from animal feeding operations.

Analysis of the use of a wheat straw cover for reducing ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from liquidmanure was conducted in both a laboratory and a pilot system. Two straw covers with different thicknesses (5 cm and10 cm) were evaluated for their effectiveness in reducing odorous gas emissions. The rates of ammonia and hydrogensulfide emissions from the treatments were monitored; concentrations of ammonia, dissolved sulfide, chemical oxygendemand (COD), and pH of the liquid manure were measured. Additionally, the overall mass transfer coefficients ofammonia and hydrogen sulfide were calculated for the conditions of the experiment. The results demonstrated that boththe 5-cm and 10-cm straw covers were effective in reducing ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from manurestorage. In the laboratory tests, when a crust formed on the manure surface within three to four weeks after the strawapplication, ammonia emissions were reduced by up to 95%. A similar trend was observed in the pilot experiments in thefield. Hydrogen sulfide emissions were suppressed by 95% with the wheat straw cover. The mass transfer coefficients ofhydrogen sulfide with the straw covers were significantly lower than those of the control, which indicated the effectivenessof a straw cover as a physical barrier for reducing hydrogen sulfide emissions. Reduced pH and decreased ammoniaconcentrations in the liquid surface layer beneath the straw cover, both of which were observed during the tests,suggested that biological reactions might also be a factor contributing to the emission reductions.

Surface oxidation for reducing ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from dairy manure was studied in alaboratory. Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from manure storages were measured. Total ammonia, pH,dissolved sulfide concentrations, and chemical oxygen demand of the manure were monitored, and overall mass transfercoefficients of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide were calculated. Spraying 0.5% hydrogen peroxide on the manure surfacenot only steadily reduced 70% of the ammonia emissions, but also significantly reduced the ammonia concentration onthe liquid manure surface. This reduction in ammonia emissions may be partially due to the reduced ammoniaconcentration and partially due to the decreased pH on the manure surface. Spraying 0.5% potassium permanganate onthe manure surface initially reduced ammonia emissions by 70%, but gradually became less effective. Spraying hydrogenperoxide and potassium permanganate on the manure surface also reduced hydrogen sulfide emissions. The results alsoindicated that the overall mass transfer coefficients of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide were not affected by the spraying ofoxidant on the liquid surface. In terms of the effectiveness in reducing ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions and theresidue left in the treated manure, hydrogen peroxide was superior to potassium permanganate for this application.

Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from poultry facilities are a concern. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of zeolite, a lagoon or feed amendment, on ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. The laboratory study was conducted using six treatments including a control with no zeolite; and 1%, 5%, 10%, 50%, and a topical sprinkle of 0.5% zeolite added. Odor, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions were measured using wind tunnel technology at 5, 10, and 15 minute increments following the application of the zeolite. A human panel was used to identify hedonic tone and intensity of the six treatments after 24 hours of being treated. The hedonic tone increased 32%, and the intensity decreased 7%. VOCs and VFAs were analyzed using GC/MS to separate thirteen volatile organic compounds (VOCs); phenol, indole, skatole, p-cresol, 4-Et-phenol, acetic acid, propionic, butyric, isobutyric, valeric, isovaleric, hexionic, and 2aminoacetophenone. Addition of zeolite caused a relative decrease in the short to mid chain VFAs, and an increase in the phenolic and indolic VOCs. The results suggest a relative decrease in overall emissions of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and VFAs; but, there was an increase in offensive odor that can be attributed to the increase of VOCs.

Stable aqueous foam-microbial media consisting of protein-based foams and odor-degrading bacteria were developed to control the emissions of odorous compounds. The optimum foam formulation was determined based on foam characteristics including 50% drainage time, foam lifetime, and foam expansion ratio. When only the aqueous foam was applied onto the surface of a test odor source (i.e., swine manure), ammonia emission was completely suppressed for about 177, 225, 265, 297, and 471 min when the height of foam barrier was 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 30 cm, respectively. According to the increasing foam height, ammonia emission rates after breakthrough points decreased to 0.16, 0.13, 0.09, 0.07, and 0.02 mg/m3/min, and thus volatilized ammonia concentrations decreased significantly after 600 min. Hydrogen sulfide was similarly suppressed. Ammonia emission was better controlled by incorporating odor-degrading bacteria into the aqueous foam. The odor suppression capacity of the 5-cm foam barrier with microbes was more than eight times greater than that of the barrier only and was similar to that of 30-cm foam barrier without microbes after 1440 min. A significant amount of dinitrogen gas was evolved by the foam-microbial media, indicating a successful biological transformation of ammonia.

Total suspended particulate (TSP) concentrations, ammonia (NH3) concentrations, and ventilation rates weremeasured in four commercial, tunnelventilated broiler houses in June through December of 2000 in Brazos County, Texas.TSP and NH3 concentrations ranged from 7,387 to 11,387 .g m3 and 2.02 to 45 ppm, respectively. Ammonia concentrationexhibited a correlation with the age of the birds. Mass median diameters (MMD) of the TSP samples were between 24.0 and26.7 .m aerodynamic equivalent diameter. MMD increased with bird age. The mass fraction of PM10 in the TSP samples wasbetween 2.72% and 8.40% with a mean of 5.94%. Ventilation rates were measured between 0.58 and 89 m3 s1. Measuredconcentrations of PM10 and ammonia were multiplied by the measured ventilation rates to calculate emission rates for PM10and ammonia. Ammonia emission rates varied from 38 to 2105 g hr1. TSP emission rates and PM10 emission rates rangedfrom 7.0 to 1673 g hr1 and 0.58 to 99 g hr1, respectively. Emission rates for ammonia and particulate matter increased withthe age of the birds. Most of the PM in the commercial broiler houses was large enough to be captured by the human or poultryrespiratory system prior to being inhaled into the lungs.

Dietary manipulation can substantially lower ammonia (NH3) emissions from laying-hen houses or manure storage. Recent lab studies showed a reduction of 4060% in ammonia emissions for an experimental (EcoCalTM) diet as compared the standard or control diet. However, adoption of a mitigation technology at commercial production level should be preceded by substantial field verification tests to document not only NH3 emission reduction, but also impact of the strategy on production performance of the hens and cash returns. A study to assess the effects of feeding diets containing EcoCal on NH3, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, laying-hen production performance, and economic returns was conducted at a commercial laying-hen farm in central Iowa. Two houses (256,000 or 262,000 hens per house) were used for the study. Hens in one house were fed the EcoCal diet while hens in the other house were fed a standard or control diet containing no EcoCal. A state-of-the-art mobile air emissions monitoring unit (MAEMU) and the associated sampling system were used to continuously monitor the gaseous concentrations, ventilation rate and environmental conditions. Comparative data collected from December 2006 to May 2007 are presented in this paper. Data from this period showed that the EcoCal diet led to NH3 emission reduction by up to 23.2% (0.860.04 and 1.120.03 g/dhen for EcoCal and Control diet, respectively), at the same time, H2S emission increased by up to 134% (4.380.20 and 1.820.07 mg/dhen for EcoCal and Control diet, respectively), although the magnitude of H2S emission is rather small for both dietary regimens. Data on the hen production performance are reported in a companion paper (Roberts et al., 2008).

Ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) emissions from swine production facilities receive considerable attention due to human health and environmental implications. Accurate quantification of farm emissions is essential to ensure compliance with regulatory requirements. The objectives of this study were to provide a review of the literature on NH3 and H2S emissions from swine production facilities in North America with a meta-analysis that integrates results of independent studies, including measured emissions data from both swine houses and manure storage facilities as well as concentration data in the vicinity of swine production facilities. Results from more than 80 studies were identified through a thorough literature search, and the data were compiled together with results from the 11 swine sites in the National Air Emissions Monitoring Study (NAEMS). Data across studies were analyzed statistically using the MIXED procedures of SAS. Median emissions rates from swine houses were 2.78 and 0.09 kg/year per pig for NH3 and H2S, respectively. Median emissions rates from swine storage facilities were 2.08 and 0.20 kg/year per pig for NH3 and H2S, respectively. The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) require reporting of NH3 and H2S emissions that exceed 100 lb/d. The size that may trigger the need for a farm to report NH3 emissions is 3,410 pigs based on median NH3 emissions rates in the literature, but the threshold can be as low as 992 pigs based on 90th-percentile emissions rates. Swine hoop houses had significantly higher NH3 emission rates than other manure-handling systems (P < 0.01), whereas deep pit houses had the highest H2S emission rates (P = 0.03). Farrowing houses had the highest H2S emission rates, followed by gestation houses, and finishing houses had lowest H2S emission rates (P < 0.01). Regression models for NH3 and H2S emission rates were developed for finishing houses with deep pits, recharge pits, and lagoons. The NH3 emission rates increased with increasing air temperature, but effects of air temperature on H2S emission rates were not significant. The recharge interval of manure pits significantly affected H2S but not NH3 emission rates. The H2S emission rates were also influenced by the size of the operation. Although NH3 and H2S concentrations at the edge of swine houses or lagoons were often higher than corresponding acute or intermediate minimum risk levels (MRLs), they decreased quickly to be less than corresponding chronic or intermediate MRLs as distances from emission sources increase. At distances 30 to 1,185 m from emission sources, the average ambient concentrations for NH3 and H2S were 66 ± 66 ppb and 3.1 ± 6.2 ppb, respectively.; Swine Day, Manhattan, KS, November 21, 2013