Ammonia Cycling and Emerging Secondary Aerosols from Arable Agriculture: A European and Irish Perspective

Abstract

Ammonia (NH3) is a naturally occurring, highly reactive and soluble alkaline trace gas, originating from both natural and anthropogenic sources. It is present throughout the biosphere, yet plays a complicated role in atmospheric acid–base reactions resulting in the formation of inorganic secondary inorganic aerosols (SIAs). While the general mechanisms are recognised, factors controlling the reactions leading to SIA formation are less explored. This review summarises the current knowledge of NH3 sources, emission and deposition processes and atmospheric reactions leading to the formation of SIA. Brief summaries of NH3 and SIA long-range transport and trans-boundary pollution, a discussion of precursor species to SIAs (other than NH3), abiotic and biotic controls and state-of-the-art methods of measurement and modelling of pollutants are also included. In Ireland, NH3 concentrations remained below National and European Union limits, until 2016 when a rise in emissions was seen due to agricultural expansion. However, due to a lack of continuous monitoring, source and receptor relationships are difficult to establish, including the appointment of precursor gases and aerosols to source regions and industries. Additionally, the lack of continuous monitoring leads to over- and underestimations of precursor gases present, resulting in inaccuracies of the estimated importance of NH3 as a precursor gas for SIA. These gaps in data can hinder the accuracy and precision of forecasting models. Deposition measurements and the modelling of NH3 present another challenge. Direct source measurements are required for the parameterization of bi-directional fluxes; however, high-quality data inputs can be limited by local micrometeorological conditions, or the types of instrumentation used. Long-term measurements remain challenging for both aerosols and precursor gases over larger areas or arduous terrains.