ALD-Deposited NiO Approaches the Performance of Platinum as a Hydrogen Evolution Cocatalyst on Carbon Nitride

Abstract

The photocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction is one of the most promising approaches to utilize solar energy and produce hydrogen as an alternative energy source to traditional fossil fuels. In this work, we focused on further exploring the cocatalyst potential of the transition metal nickel and prepared nickel oxide/carbon nitride (NiO/CNx) heterojunctions through thermal polymerization as well as plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition (PEALD). The optimal NiO loading thickness on the surface of the CNx was found to be 6.5 nm, prepared from 65 cycles of ALD. This NiO(65)/CNx had a photocatalytic hydrogen evolution rate of 3.9 μmol h–1 in a 2 mg mL–1 aqueous photocatalyst solution (195 μmol h–1 g–1), corresponding to an AQY of 3.1% and exhibiting 54% of the activity of 3 wt % Pt/CNx under 405 nm light illumination with a sacrificial reagent. A 3 wt % Ni/CNx prepared through a photodeposition process from a dispersion of CNx and simple NiCl2 had a photocatalytic hydrogen evolution rate of 2.8 μmol h–1 (140 μmol h g–1) and an AQY of 2.2% with 2 mg mL–1 photocatalyst in the reactant solution, corresponding to 39% of the activity of 3 wt % Pt/CNx. An induction period at the beginning of the hydrogen evolution process was found in all Ni-based photocatalysts, which we related to a Ni in situ photoreduction from NiII to Ni0 and the reverse reaction. In addition, the reproducibility of the induction period even in an oxygen-free environment suggests that electrons flow back from reduced Ni species to CNx under dark conditions. Furthermore, a large population of trap states was detected in the bulk CNx materials via photoinduced absorption spectroscopy, and the trapping severely hinders cocatalysts (even the benchmark Pt cocatalyst) from extracting charges from CNx for subsequent interfacial redox reactions. We conclude that not only does the surface/interface engineering of the photocatalyst/catalyst heterojunctions need to be considered but also trap states in CNx that severely limit the transfer of photogenerated charges to cocatalysts.