Afforestation and reforestation with the clean development mechanism: Potentials, problems, and future directions

유엔기후변화협약회의(UNFCCC)에서는 이산화탄소 포집 및 저장(Carbon dioxide capture and storage, CCS)의 부족한 경제성 확보 및 개발도상국으로의 확대의 하나의 방편으로 CCS를 청정개발체제(Clean Development Mechanism, CDM)로 수용하는 것에 대한 논의가 2005년부터 진행되었다. CCS의 CDM 수용과 관련하여 CCS 기술보유국 및 산유국과 개발도상국간의 의견차이로 인하여 합의를 이루지 못하고 논의가 거듭되다, ‘10.12월 칸쿤 회의결과, CCS의 CDM 수용 가능성에 대해 합의가 이루어졌다(CMP[2010], Decision7/CMP.6). 당시 당사국들은 CCS의 CDM 수용을 위해 방식 및 절차에 관련한 주요 이슈, 즉, 1) 저장지 선정, 2) 모니터링, 3) 모델링, 4) 경계, 5) 누수 측정 및 계산, 6) 월경 효과, 7) 연계프로젝트 배출 계산, 8) 위해성 및 안전성 평가, 9) CDM 체제하의 책임 등에 대한 합의를 우선 요구하였으며, 동기간 동안 과학·기술자문부속기구(SBSTA)에서는 의견 교환 및 워크숍 개최 등을 통해 방식 및 절차에 대한 초안을 마련하였다. 이 초안을 바탕으로 "11년 12월 남아공 더반 회의에서 마침내 CCS기술을 CDM으로 수용키로 최종 합의하였다(CMP[2011], Decision-/CMP.7). CCS의 CDM 수용은 단순히 경제적 인센티브의 제공이라는 의미를 넘어 CCS 기술이 국제사회에서 이산화탄소 저감기술로 공식적으로 인정받았다는 것을 의미하기에 국내의 관련 기술 및 산업뿐만 아니라 법·정책적 측면에서도 큰 영향을 미칠 것으로 보인다. 이에 본 논문에서는 각 이슈들에 대한 국제적 논의 동향을 분석하고, 이를 통해 현재 우리나라가 계획하고 있는 CCS 실용화를 위해 선행되어야 할 정책적 고려 사항을 도출하였다. 금번에 채택된 CCS기술의 CDM 체제 방식 및 절차에 따르면, 우리나라와 같은 비부속서 I 당사국도 방식 및 절차에서 제시한 법·제도를 수립할 경우 CCS CDM 사업 활동 수행이 가능하다. 현재 우리나라는 상위법인 ‘저탄소 녹색성장 기본법’이 제정되어 있으나 CCS CDM 방식과 절차에서 요구하고 있는 세부 법·제도 프레임웍은 미비한 상황이다. 따라서 단기적으로 포집, 수송, 저장 분야 별로 관련법 개정을 통해 CCS CDM 기반 조기 마련과 함께 장기적으로는 단일법 제정을 포함한 CDM 체제 하의 CCS 사업관련 종합적 법제도 기반을 준비할 것을 제언하고자 한다.

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the most quickly evolving of the three flexibility mechanisms1 of the Kyoto Protocol. The first CDM project activities were registered in 2004, i.e. before the Kyoto Protocol went into force, and the first emission reductions were issued in 2005. This paper analyses the current evaluation practise of CDM project activities and comes to the conclusion that the two main CDM goals (the achievement of additional emission reductions and the contribution to sustainable development in the host country) are not awarded equal attention. As the mitigation of GHG emissions is closely linked to the fulfilment of the Kyoto Protocol, an externally accredited entity, the DOE (Designated Operational Entity) has to carry out validation, verification and certification activities. However, no transparent evaluation system has been established for sustainable development. The DNA (Designated National Authority) is in charge of assessing the contribution to sustainability of proposed project activities. As the host countries are sovereign in their decisions, the DNAs are free to assume this task as they find appropriate. Therefore, the quality of evaluation may vary considerably. Although an external ex-ante evaluation is a prerequisite aimed at assuring the quality of the CDM project activities, it actually cannot guarantee a successful implementation. An approach is needed that enables the project developers to design and implement a sustainability strategy for their CDM project activities and to demonstrate their contribution to sustainable development. In addition, it should provide to the DNAs the information needed to evaluate the CDM project activity.

The growing concern about climate change led governments around the world to agree on forming the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) during the 1992 Rio summit. This Convention entered into force in March 1994 and by May 1997, the UNFCCC had over 130 signatory countries. The UNFCCC works for the “stabilization of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. The Convention requires the cooperation of national administrations in providing a framework of regulations and policies to implement its various provisions. The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC was adopted in December 1997, according to which the developed country parties agree to reduce their Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions by a global average of 5.2 per cent below the 1990 levels by the period 2008–2012. The Protocol came into effect in February 16, 2005 without its ratification by USA and Australia. India is not required to adopt any GHG reduction targets though she has to follow the general commitments under the UNFCCC. It is well known that the USA considers the Kyoto Protocol to be a “totally flawed” and “unsound international treaty”. The Kyoto Protocol created flexible cooperative mechanisms, such as GHG Emissions Trading and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), allowing member countries to meet their commitments with respect to reduction in emissions. Through CDM, developing countries that did not accept binding emissions reductions at Kyoto can be involved in GHG mitigation.

Sustainable development outcomes of coal mine methane clean development mechanism Projects in China

A correction in the CDM methodological tool for estimating methane emissions from solid waste disposal sites

38119MetricsTotal Downloads381Last 6 Months33Last 12 Months89Total Citations19Last 6 Months0Last 12 Months0View all metrics

Better information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation potential in the agricultural sector is necessary to manage these emissions and identify responses that are consistent with the food security and economic development priorities of countries. Critical activity data (what crops or livestock are managed in what way) are poor or lacking for many agricultural systems, especially in developing countries. In addition, the currently available methods for quantifying emissions and mitigation are often too expensive or complex or not sufficiently user friendly for widespread use.The purpose of this focus issue is to capture the state of the art in quantifying greenhouse gases from agricultural systems, with the goal of better understanding our current capabilities and near-term potential for improvement, with particular attention to quantification issues relevant to smallholders in developing countries. This work is timely in light of international discussions and negotiations around how agriculture should be included in efforts to reduce and adapt to climate change impacts, and considering that significant climate financing to developing countries in post-2012 agreements may be linked to their increased ability to identify and report GHG emissions (Murphy et al 2010, CCAFS 2011, FAO 2011).

The inclusion of Programmes of Activities (PoAs) within the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) has been limited by the fact that third-party project validators, who determine the eligibility of a CDM Project Activity (CPA), are currently held liable for any certificates that are erroneously issued. As such, validators must replace any credits issued for the relevant CPA. Moreover, the risk associated with the validation of small-scale CPAs is considerably higher than that associated with traditional CDM projects. Using a simple game-theory model to model the interactions between project validators and coordinators, it is shown that shifting liability for certificates that are erroneously included – from the former to the latter – is never optimal, does not provide a strong enough incentive to enforce first-best levels of due care in CPA selection and inclusion, and can induce overprovision in validation efforts. The main problem with such a simple proportionate liability regime is that an increase in incentives for one player automatically leads to a decrease in incentives for the other. Two additional instruments are also considered that would both rectify this problem and improve the environmental integrity of the CDM mechanism.

This study performed an assessment on the beneficial of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) application on waste treatment system in a local palm oil industry in Malaysia. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to assess the environmental impacts of the greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction from the CDM application. Calculations on the emission reduction used the methodology based on AM002 (Avoided Wastewater and On-site Energy Use Emissions in the Industrial Sector) Version 4 published by United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). The results from the studies showed that the introduction of CDM in the palm oil mill through conversion of the captured biogas from palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment into power generation were able to reduce approximate 0.12 tonnes CO2 equivalent concentration (tCO2e) emission and 30 kW·hr power generation per 1 tonne of fresh fruit bunch processed. Thus, the application of CDM methodology on palm oil mill wastewater treatment was able to reduce up to 1/4 of the overall environment impact generated in palm oil mill. Implications The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an arrangement under the Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol Kyoto Protocol to support developing countries in greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction. Since CDM indicators only focus on GHG emissions reduction, the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology could be used to provide additional assessment on the environmental impact of the CDM implementation. This study utilized the GHG emission reduction indicators obtained from CDM methodology for calculating the environmental impacts based on various environmental consequences and evaluation.

There’s a market growing in the United States, but unlike markets that trade in tangible commodities, this one trades in the absence of something no one wants: greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Hundreds of companies make it possible for individuals, organizations, businesses, and even events such as rock music festivals to proclaim themselves carbon-neutral by paying someone else to reduce their emissions. Worried about your carbon footprint? No problem. For fees of US$2–50 per ton of “avoided emissions,” an offset provider will funnel your money into an activity or technology that keeps greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere. The question is, are offset buyers really getting what they paid for?

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the market-based mechanism introduced to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) during various activities. Enormous literature has been available on the GHG mitigation activities in energy, transport, agriculture, construction, waste handling activities, afforestation and reforestation sectors using CDM. However, no single study has been carried out for reduction of fugitive emissions or leakages which releases during the industrial activities. Therefore, this paper presents a critical assessment of CDM projects implemented to reduce fugitive emissions during industrial activities. Out of entire 7749 registered CDM projects (in all sectors of CDM), only 154 (1.98%) fugitive emission reduction projects were implemented up to 2016. These 154 projects contribute up to 147,563,247 MTCO2e (8.87%) estimated emission reduction out of total 1,663,533,108 MTCO2e estimated emission reduction in all sectors of CDM ( https://cdm.unfccc.int/about/index.html ). Out of these 154 registered fugitive projects, 125 projects were assessed for fuel emissions, 19 for halocarbons (HCF) emissions and 10 for sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) emissions. The details of the projects were gathered from Project Design Document (PDDs) of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) project cycle search and further verified by monitoring the reports of each project. These projects were studied to examine estimated emission reductions with special emphasis on the achieved emission reductions in terms of Certified Emissions Reduction (CERs) to calculate financial benefits. Available CDM methodologies to reduce fugitive emissions were also studied. Further, the distribution of these projects across India was mapped using Arc-GIS. Findings show India is second most country after China in registration of CDM projects. Westerns and northern part of India covers maximum CDM activities. Amongst various methodologies, abatement of methane from coalmines (ACM0008), approved methods decomposition of fluoroform (HFC-23) and point of use abatement device to reduce SF6 emissions (AM0078) were used extensively for reduction of fuel, HFC and fluoride gas emissions. 260,064,195 MTCO2e of CERs (14.5%), i.e. emission reduction was achieved from these projects till 2016 ( https://cdm.unfccc.int/about/index.html ). Therefore, some key challenges or barriers are discussed for development and disclosure of carbon strategies to get transparency in entire CER trading processes.

In Brazil, Solid Waste Disposal Sites have operated without consideration of environmental criteria, these areas being characterized by methane (CH4) emissions during the anaerobic degradation of organic matter. The United Nations organization has made efforts to control this situation, through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, where projects that seek to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) can be financially rewarded through Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) if they respect the requirements established by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), such as the use of methodologies approved by the CDM Executive Board (CDM-EB). Thus, a methodology was developed according to the CDM standards related to the aeration, excavation and composting of closed Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) landfills, which was submitted to CDM-EB for assessment and, after its approval, applied to a real case study in Maringá City (Brazil) with a view to avoiding negative environmental impacts due the production of methane and leachates even after its closure. This paper describes the establishment of this CDM-EB-approved methodology to determine baseline emissions, project emissions and the resultant emission reductions with the application of appropriate aeration, excavation and composting practices at closed MSW landfills. A further result obtained through the application of the methodology in the landfill case study was that it would be possible to achieve an ex-ante emission reduction of 74,013 tCO2 equivalent if the proposed CDM project activity were implemented.

The baselines for greenhouse gas (GHG) and greenhouse gas reduction scenarios were approximated in Thailand so that a small-scale Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) could be introduced into other Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries. In developing countries, a CDM is defined as the certified emission reduction from a baseline of any project (i.e. by applying new technologies) that could be exchanged for credits, and this credit of certified emission reductions could be acquired by Japan and ASEAN countries. Small-scale CDMs are project activities that reduce anthropogenic emissions and directly emit less than 15 kt of carbon dioxide-equivalents annually. For the success of CDM projects, baseline methodologies are allowed to apply to the United Nations CDM Executive Board. Baseline methodologies use a baseline scenario, which compares the baseline without any project to a case with an emission reduction project. After commencement of a project, reduction of GHG emissions from the baseline by the emission’s reduction project could be exchanged for credit. Therefore, GHG emission from the broiler industry in Thailand was calculated by the Tier 1 method and defaults data in accordance with 2006 IPCC guidelines. The baseline for the waste management system in the broiler industry is defined as drying without energy. Three types of projects on waste management systems the broiler industry were compared: (i) incineration, (ii) drying without energy input and (iii) drying with energy input. Products of these systems are finally used as compost on agricultural fields. The baseline for the manure drying without energy input system was approximated. This baseline was compared with the manure incineration system and the drying with energy input system. GHG emissions produced by adoption of drying broiler manure with energy input could be reduced by ~57% by drying broiler manure without energy input. This reduction in GHG (57%) could be credited to a small-scale CDM when operational. In the future, measurement of GHG on broiler production farms in Thailand should be considered, because estimation with the Tier 1 method, as performed in this study, may not be rigorous enough to be accepted by the CDM Executive Board. After compiling GHG inventories, baseline emissions would be known for the broiler industry in Thailand and other countries in ASEAN. These could then be used to advance CDM.

In June 2015, carbon credits amounting to 446 t of CO 2 were issued for a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project developed and implemented in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta aimed at reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through the introduction of biogas digesters (BDs) to farm households. Subsequently, the project was evaluated in terms of GHG emission reductions (i.e., carbon credits issued), receptiveness of farm households to the technology, and economic benefits to these families. Findings confirmed that BDs provide concrete reductions in GHG emissions and are beneficial to install in such scenarios. Currently, a new international framework for post-2020 global warming mitigation is being considered by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in which all signatory countries would participate, including the developing countries that have not yet been mandated to make reductions. These evaluation results present a potential policy direction for developing countries to reduce their GHG emissions.

China's CDM Policies and Their Development Implications: Major Concerns for CDM Implementation