Aedes albopictus life table: environment, food, and age dependence survivorship and reproduction in a tropical area

Silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) are widely utilized in industrial and biomedical applications owing to their unique physicochemical properties; however, their potential biological effects require comprehensive evaluation. In this study, the model organism Drosophila melanogaster was employed to investigate the impacts of dietary exposure to SiO2 NPs of different sizes and concentrations on developmental and reproductive outcomes. The assessed parameters included egg-laying rate, pupation time, adult emergence time, pupation rate, adult emergence rate, larval weight, and sex ratio. The results revealed that at concentrations of 0.2% or lower, neither nanoparticle size produced significant effects on development or reproductive capacity. In contrast, exposure to 2% SiO2 NPs (both 15 nm and 30 nm) led to reduced body weight in third instar larvae. Notably, 30 nm SiO2 NPs exposure significantly decreased pupation and adult emergence rates and was associated with delayed pupation and emergence times. Although total egg production remained unchanged, flies exposed to 30 nm SiO2 NPs exhibited an earlier oviposition peak. These findings suggest that exposure to SiO2 NPs at the national standard concentration of 0.2% does not cause notable developmental effects in Drosophila, whereas a tenfold increase in concentration may induce developmental delays. Considering that the 0.2% standard is based on human exposure and accounting for interspecies extrapolation, the 2% concentration may still represent a relevant dose range. Overall, these results indicate that excessive intake of SiO2 NPs could pose toxicological risks and provide a theoretical foundation for further studies on the mechanisms underlying SiO2 NPs-induced toxicity.

Adverse climatic conditions lead toward reduction in agricultural crop production that is a serious threat for global food security. Reduced irradiance in crop season affects plant physiology, growth and yield. To alleviate shade stress, foliar application of thiourea (TU) has not been comprehensively tested on maize. In this regard, a greenhouse study on maize crop was established with different TU application (as foliar) rates; CK (0 mg L−1), T4 (400 mg L−1), T8 (800 mg L−1) and T16 (1600 mg L−1) under shaded and non-shaded conditions. The results indicated that TU increased physiologically photosynthetic rate (Pn), biochemically chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and leaf water content. In term of nutrient concentration, stem and leaf nitrogen contents were increased by 18.30% and 23.55% respectively in T16 as compared to CK. Overall, higher amount of TU (T16) increased plant height (5.10%), stem diameter (11.90%), stem fresh weight (5.16%), stem dry weight (5.22%), 100-kernel weight (23.58%) and grain yield (9.08%) than that of CK. However, TU application under shaded environment could not produce similar yield as that of non-shaded plants. Overall, non-shaded plant had 9.71% higher grain yield than that of shaded conditions. But it can be concluded that foliar application of TU at higher concentration could be a promising option to maintain maize productivity under shaded conditions. Furthermore, combination of TU with other plant nutrients should be tested to improve maize growth under shaded conditions.

An expression of plants response to light availability is their shade tolerance which refers to the capacity of a given plant to tolerate low light levels. Survival in a shaded environment can determine phenotypic consequences at morphological and/or physiological levels and such changes may be crucial to survive in heterogeneous and variable conditions. However, the potential plastic response of a given plant trait may be large but the observed plasticity may be lowered by resource limitations or environmental stress factors. In this context, the aim of this research was to analyze morphological, anatomical and physiological leaf traits variations of Sesleria nitida Ten. growing in different light conditions. In particular, plants growing in open (PO) and shade (PU) conditions were analyzed. The results show a 35% higher specific leaf area (SLA) in PU than in PO due to a 94% larger leaf area (LA). The higher height and width of the central and the major lateral vascular bundle in PO than in PU contribute to a higher net photosynthesis (PN) in sun than in shade conditions. Moreover, the 33% higher ratio between respiration (RD) and PN (RD/PN) in PU than in PO highlights the greater proportion of the carbon consumed by RD in the shade population requiring a greater metabolic effort for growth and maintenance. S. nitida in the shaded environment might be favored by the soil pH being a neutro-basophilous species and the larger soil water content (SWC) and mineral content contributing to maintain a positive carbon balance in this limiting condition. The plasticity analysis for open vs. the understory plants (mean plasticity index = 0.32) highlights the leaf trait variations useful to maintain a positive carbon balance where light availability is the main limiting factor. Knowledge of the capacity of S. nitida to first colonize and then modify its phenotype in response to the shade condition can contribute to a better understanding of its ecology.

Predatory efficiency of the water bug Sphaerodema annulatum on mosquito larvae ( Culex quinquefasciatus) and its effect on the adult emergence

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 不同光照强度下兴安落叶松对舞毒蛾幼虫生长发育及防御酶的影响 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201207251056 作者: 作者单位: 东北林业大学,东北林业大学林学院,东北林业大学林学院 林学院 150040 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家公益性行业科研专项资助项目（200904021） Effects of the Larix gmelinii grown under different light intensities on the development and defensive enzyme activities of Lymantria dispar larvae Author: Affiliation: College of Forestry,Northeast Forestry University,College of Forestry,Northeast Forestry University,College of Forestry,Northeast Forestry University Fund Project: 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:为了探讨舞毒蛾对光照环境变化引起的落叶松抗性的变化是如何响应的，分析了不同光照强度处理的兴安落叶松对舞毒蛾幼虫生长发育状况和生理指标变化的影响。研究发现，取食50%和25%光照强度下生长的落叶松后，舞毒蛾幼虫平均体重、蛹重、化蛹率和羽化率与对照组相比均显著下降（P < 0.05）。幼虫体内保护酶SOD、POD、CAT和解毒酶ACP、AKP、CarE、GSTs、MFO活性与对照组（100% 光照）相比均显著降低（P < 0.05）且除CAT外在50%光照强度下降低最为显著（P < 0.05）；4龄和5龄幼虫取食同一光强处理的落叶松后，SOD、POD、CarE、GSTs和MFO活性5龄显著低于4龄（P < 0.05），ACP和AKP活性5龄却显著高于4龄（P < 0.05），表明昆虫在不同的发育阶段启用不同的排毒酶系。已有研究表明光照差异对取食人工饲料的舞毒蛾生长发育没有显著影响，对部分解毒酶活性有影响，表明光照增加了植物的抗性，同时降低了昆虫了自身解毒酶。研究结果表明，采取适当的营林措施调节林分内的光照条件，可以提高落叶松的自主抗虫性，增强其抵御害虫危害的能力，有效控制害虫危害，减少化学农药的施用量。 Abstract:Larix gmelinii is among the most ecologically and economically important timber species in northeastern China due to its cold hardiness, drought resistance and rapid growth. Lymantria dispar L. is a defoliating insect pest which seriously harms larch during outbreaks. Plants, including trees, employ an array of physical and chemical constitutive defense mechanisms that play an important role in protection from insect herbivory. Constitutive defenses are always present, and because they are maintained even in undamaged plants, they are affected by environmental factors to some degree. In many organisms light is a crucial environmental signal influencing natural physiological and developmental processes. Different light intensities could induce changes in plant defense systems. However, pest insects can detoxify ingested plant secondary metabolites with their biotransformation system. We studied the developmental and physiological responses of Lymantria dispar larvae to changes in the constitutive defenses of Larix gmelinii under three sunlight intensities (100%, 50% and 25% of natural sunlight intensity) mimicking the light conditions of forest edges, forest gaps and understories. The results showed that the detoxification enzyme activities of both fourth and fifth instar L. dispar larvae were significantly affected by their host L. gmelinii trees grown under the three different sunlight intensities. Compared with the control (100% sunlight intensity), the larval development (reflected by mean larval weight, pupation rate, mean pupal weight, adult emergence rate) of L. dispar was significantly inhibited after being fed on the needles of L. gmelinii grown under shaded conditions (P < 0.05). The activities of the protective enzymes SOD, POD, CAT and detoxification enzymes ACP, AKP, CarE, GSTs, MFO in L. dispar larvae after fed on the needles of L. gmelinii grown under the shaded conditions (25% and 50% sunlight intensity) were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than those in the larvae fed on the needles of L. gmelinii grown under the control (100% sunlight intensity) light condition. The activities of all the tested protective and detoxification enzymes excepting CAT were the most significantly inhibited after the larvae being fed on the needles of L.gmelinii grown under 50% sunlight intensity (P < 0.05). These larval enzyme activities were significantly different (P < 0.05) between fourth and fifth instar larvae while fed on the needles grown under the same light condition. The SOD, POD, CarE, GSTs and MFO activities in the fourth instar larvae were significantly higher than those of fifth instar larvae (P < 0.05), while the ACP and AKP activities in the fifth instar larvae were significantly higher than those of fourth instar larvae (P < 0.05). This result indicated that L. dispar might use different enzymes or enzyme complex for defense and/or detoxification during their larval development stages. However, light intensities did not show any significant direct effects on the growth development and defensive enzyme activities of L. dispar larvae on the artificial diets, indicating that the changes observed in L. dispar larval development and defensive enzyme activities were mainly caused by the larch resistance but not by the light intensity. Our results suggested that adjusting the light conditions rationally via silviculture approaches in the larch forests might not only increase the tree growth, but also increase the overall tree resistance to certain serious pest insects including L. dispar. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

Abstract. Kaullysing D, Jogee SY, Mundil SP, Soondur M, Gopeechund A, Ricot M, Jeetun S, Chinta T, Chockalingum J, Mungur D, Kowal B, Kristnama L, Gunness V, Balgobin A, Fakun ZR, Munbodhe V, Nohur MB, Ramdhun D, Ramsurrun LK, Rase S, Seetohul TK, Mattan-Moorgawa S, Ramah S, Bhagooli R. 2023. Variations in photo-physiological responses of shaded and non-shaded mangrove, Rhizophora mucronata tree parts from Mauritius Island, western Indian Ocean. Indo Pac J Ocean Life 7: 71-78. This study assessed and compared the photo-physiological responses of the tree parts of juvenile and adult mangrove, Rhizophora mucronata, under shaded and non-shaded conditions in the northern coast of Mauritius Island. Chlorophyll a fluorescence of mature (dark) leaves, young and mature propagules, lichen, buds, and sepal of adult R. mucronata trees, and of mature and young (pale) leaves of juveniles under natural shaded and non-shaded conditions was measured using a field-portable Diving Pulse-Amplitude-Modulated (D-PAM) fluorometer. Commonly used chlorophyll fluorescence parameters such as Fv/Fm, rETRmax, NPQmax were calculated. The tree parts of adult and juvenile R. mucronata showed considerable variations in their photosynthetic responses. Fv/Fm of adult tree leaves was 30% higher in shaded condition as compared to non-shaded condition. The combined effect of mangrove tree parts and conditions (shaded; non-shaded) resulted in significant differences in mean values of Fv/Fm (three-way ANOVA, p&lt;0.001). Leaves of adult trees had 52% higher rETRmax in shaded condition. While a significant difference (p&lt;0.001) was noted in the mean rETRmax values of various tree parts, the shaded and non-shaded conditions did not have any significant effect on rETRmax (p&gt;0.05). Non-shaded parts of R. mucronata, including the leaves, exhibited higher NPQmax values as compared to shaded conditions. Mean NPQmax varied significantly among mangrove parts (p&lt;0.001), between tree stage (p&lt;0.001) and between conditions (p&lt;0.05). These findings revealed differences in the photosynthetic activities of various mangrove parts of juvenile and adult trees under shaded and non-shaded conditions, a first attempt for the tropical island of Mauritius.

BackgroundWith the recent occurrence of locally transmitted Aedes-borne viruses in the continental United States and Europe, and a lack of effective vaccines, new approaches to control Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are needed. In sub-tropical urban settings in the US, Ae. albopictus is a dominant nuisance and arbovirus vector species. Unfortunately, the vector control toolbox against Ae. albopictus is not as well developed as for Ae. aegypti. Here, we evaluate the efficacy, longevity, and range of protectiveness of a novel passive metofluthrin emanator (10% active ingredient in a polyethylene mesh) against Ae. albopictus indoors and outdoors.MethodsFour studies were conducted comparing the presence of the metofluthrin emanator to a control lacking emanator with interest in quantifying efficacy by human landing counts. Studies evaluated the effect of an emanator at varying distances from one or more human volunteers indoors and outdoors. Efficacy of emanators over time since activation was also evaluated.ResultsMixed-effects models determined that sitting in close proximity to an emanator reduced landings by 89.5% outdoors and by 74.6% indoors. The emanator was determined protective when located immediately next to a human volunteer outdoors but not uniformly protective when located further away. The emanator was protective at all tested distances from the device indoors. Mortality of mosquitoes exposed to metofluthrin emanators was ~2x higher than those who were not exposed in indoor conditions. Finally, a Generalized Additive Model determined that emanators used continuously outdoors lost their effect after 2.5 weeks and stopped inducing paralysis in mosquitoes after 3.8 weeks of use.ConclusionsWe show strong and lasting efficacy of 10% metofluthrin emanators against field Ae. albopictus both in indoor and outdoor conditions. Metofluthrin emanators can protect people from Ae. albopictus bites, representing a viable option for reducing human-mosquito contacts at home and beyond.

With the recent occurrence of locally transmitted Aedes-borne viruses in the continental United States and Europe, and a lack of effective vaccines, new approaches to control Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are needed. In sub-tropical urban settings in the US, Ae. albopictus is a dominant nuisance and arbovirus vector species. Unfortunately, the vector control toolbox against Ae. albopictus is not as well developed as for Ae. aegypti. Here, we evaluate the efficacy, longevity, and range of protectiveness of a novel passive metofluthrin emanator (10% active ingredient in a polyethylene mesh) against Ae. albopictus indoors and outdoors. Four studies were conducted comparing the presence of the metofluthrin emanator to a control lacking emanator with interest in quantifying efficacy by human landing counts. Studies evaluated the effect of an emanator at varying distances from one or more human volunteers indoors and outdoors. Efficacy of emanators over time since activation was also evaluated. Mixed-effects models determined that sitting in close proximity to an emanator reduced landings by 89.5% outdoors and by 74.6% indoors. The emanator was determined protective when located immediately next to a human volunteer outdoors but not uniformly protective when located further away. The emanator was protective at all tested distances from the device indoors. Mortality of mosquitoes exposed to metofluthrin emanators was ~2x higher than those who were not exposed in indoor conditions. Finally, a Generalized Additive Model determined that emanators used continuously outdoors lost their effect after 2.5 weeks and stopped inducing paralysis in mosquitoes after 3.8 weeks of use. We show strong and lasting efficacy of 10% metofluthrin emanators against field Ae. albopictus both in indoor and outdoor conditions. Metofluthrin emanators can protect people from Ae. albopictus bites, representing a viable option for reducing human-mosquito contacts at home and beyond.

Objective The citrus longhorned beetle, Anoplophora chinensis, is an important trunk borer and has an extensive host range.It is difficult to control the beetle as it is hidden in the truck and has a long larvae duration. A method for rearing the beetle is required to underpin studies of the biology and management, therefore the objective of this study was to compare insect performance on candidate artificial diets and temperature regimes. Method A. chinensis was reared on four different diets over three successive generations and the effect of different temperature regimes on development of A. chinensis was investigated. Result The results showed that A. chinensis was able to complete life cycle on the four artificial diets but with different pupation rates and emergence rates. Two diets (Diet A and D) based on sawdust of Casuarina equisetifolia and wheat bran gave good performance over 3 generations of A. chinensis. Pupation rates over three generations on Diet A were 100%, 90% and 95%, respectively and emergence rates were 100%, 83% and 90%, respectively. Pupation rates on Diet D were 87%, 78% and 87%, respectively and emergence rates were 87%, 67% and 80%, respectively. In addition,the rearing with these two diets showed that pupation and adult emergence rates were higher and more synchronized under fluctuating (all completed in April to May, the times of pupation and emergence were consistent with those observed in field) rather than constant temperatures. The times of pupation and emergence at constant temperatures were extended and highly variable. The larval weight gain over time was assessed under fluctuating and constant temperatures, showing that larval weight peaked at week 16-20 depending on diet, and then declined until pupation or death. The larval weight under fluctuating temperatures peaked at week 16 (late November) and larval weights on Diet D (2.077 g) were significantly higher than on Diet A (1.685 g). Under constant temperature (28℃), the larval weight peaked at week 16 on Diet D and peaked at week 20 on Diet A. Conclusion A. chinensis larvae can complete life cycle with high pupation and emergence rates, when being successively reared on Diet A and D. Temperature conditions affect the determination of the timing of A. chinensis pupation and adult emergence. Although a larval chill period is not essential, it does increase the pupation rate and synchronize development time. These findings provide a valuable resource for culturing A. chinensis, specifically by identifying suitable artificial diets and the temperature effects on larval development.The results could also provide reference for rearing other cerambycid.

Background: The growth, yield and chemical contents of the plants are affected by biotic and abiotic stresses. Plant growth, yield and chemistry were always strongly affected by lighting conditions. Different genotypes tend to have distinct genetic makeup resulting in varying growth characters. Methods: The main objective of the study was to evaluate the difference in growth, yield and chemical contents in Curcuma caesia under open and shade conditions. Four C. caesia genotypes were collected from different parts of North East India and grown in open and 50% shade environmentsin the farm of College of Horticulture and Forestry, CAU, Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh. Observations were recorded for various morphological and yield characters. The phytochemical content of the rhizomes grown in both open and shaded environments were analyzed using GCMS. Result: It was found that the four genotypes have significant differences in the morphological and yield characters. Significant interaction was found between the genotypes and shade conditions for leaf area and rhizome yield. The genotype G4 performed best in terms of yield of rhizomes and the condition S1 is found to be the best. G4S1 outperformed the others in terms of yield when considering the interaction affect between genotype and condition.

Soluble leaf carbohydrates, macronutrient elements and growth responses to 3 levels of light were studied on field grown plants of Ilex opaca Ait. cv. Miss Helen. Soluble D-fructose, α-D-glucose, B-D-glucose and sucrose reached a maximum concentration expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of leaf tissue during the winter sampling periods, followed by a decline as bud-expansion approached. The maximum concentration of soluble D-galactose was found in newly matured leaf tissue. Soluble D-fructose, α-D-glucose, B-D-glucose and sucrose levels were not effected by the shade environments. The level of D-galactose increased under the shaded environment as compared to full sun plants. P and K levels in the leaf tissue were at high concentrations in newly matured leaf tissues, while Ca and Mg were at low levels. Both K and Mg levels were observed to be higher in leaf tissue from plants grown under the 92% shade conditions compared to full sun plants. Stem diameter was significantly reduced under the 92% shade conditions, while leaf size of plants grown under both 50% and 92% shade was significantly increased. Flower production was significantly reduced in plants grown under the 92% shade conditions.

BackgroundMosquitoes are vectors of many pathogens, such as malaria, dengue virus, yellow fever virus, filaria and Japanese encephalitis virus. Wolbachia are capable of inducing a wide range of reproductive abnormalities in their hosts, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility. Wolbachia has been proposed as a tool to modify mosquitoes that are resistant to pathogen infection as an alternative vector control strategy. This study aimed to determine natural Wolbachia infections in different mosquito species across Hainan Province, China.MethodsAdult mosquitoes were collected using light traps, human landing catches and aspirators in five areas in Hainan Province from May 2020 to November 2021. Species were identified based on morphological characteristics, species-specific PCR and DNA barcoding of cox1 assays. Molecular classification of species and phylogenetic analyses of Wolbachia infections were conducted based on the sequences from PCR products of cox1, wsp, 16S rRNA and FtsZ gene segments.ResultsA total of 413 female adult mosquitoes representing 15 species were identified molecularly and analyzed. Four mosquito species (Aedes albopictus, Culex quinquefasciatus, Armigeres subalbatus and Culex gelidus) were positive for Wolbachia infection. The overall Wolbachia infection rate for all mosquitoes tested in this study was 36.1% but varied among species. Wolbachia types A, B and mixed infections of A × B were detected in Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. A total of five wsp haplotypes, six FtsZ haplotypes and six 16S rRNA haplotypes were detected from Wolbachia infections. Phylogenetic tree analysis of wsp sequences classified them into three groups (type A, B and C) of Wolbachia strains compared to two groups each for FtsZ and 16S rRNA sequences. A novel type C Wolbachia strain was detected in Cx. gelidus by both single locus wsp gene and the combination of three genes.ConclusionOur study revealed the prevalence and distribution of Wolbachia in mosquitoes from Hainan Province, China. Knowledge of the prevalence and diversity of Wolbachia strains in local mosquito populations will provide part of the baseline information required for current and future Wolbachia-based vector control approaches to be conducted in Hainan Province.Graphical

To investigate how larval feeding regimens influence development and deltamethrin resistance of Aedes albopictus to provide evidence for standardizing larval feeding protocols in studies of insecticide resistance. Aedes albopictus larvae of a laboratory resistant strain were divided into 3 groups (n=500) and reared with high, medium, and low food availability (100, 50, or 25 mg daily for the 1st and 2nd instars, and 500 mg 250, or 125 mg daily for 3rd and 4th instars). The developmental time, pupation rate, adult emergence rate, adult body weight, and wing length were recorded in each group, and deltamethrin resistance of the mosquitoes was assessed using larval bioassays and contact tube tests for adults. Significant developmental differences were observed across the 3 feeding groups. Larval development time decreased as the food availability increased, and both high- and low-food groups showed reduced pupation rates (χ²=16.282, 7.440) and emergence rates (χ²=4.093, 6.977) compared to the medium-food group. Adult body weight and wing length were positively correlated with the amount of larval food intake (P<0.05). In high, medium and low food intake groups, larval LC50 values for deltamethrin were 0.110, 0.072 and 0.064 mg/L, adult KDT50 values were 97.404, 68.964 and 65.005 min, and adult mosquitoe mortality rates at 24 h after deltamethrin exposure were 12%, 16% and 19%, respectively. The feeding amount during larval stage significantly impacts the development and deltamethrin resistance of Aedes albopictus, suggesting the importance of standardization of larval nutrition for ensuring comparability of resistance test data across laboratories.

Spodoptera litura (Fabricius, 1775) is a serious polyphagous pest causes serious damage to various crops like tobacco, cotton, cabbage etc. in Asia and other Indian subcontinents. Depletion in host plants may lead to adverse effect on the alternate host plants. During survey, observed S. litura larvae were feeding on Cassia tora, in this study third instar larvae of S. litura larvae were reared on the common and most preferred hosts like castor and tobacco. Larval, prepupal and pupal weight were compared with and other two common hosts. Percent pupation and adult emergence rate were also recorded. Among three hosts, insects which fed on Cassia tora have higher larval weight (0.825 mg) and also observed longer larval period compared to other two hosts. No differences were observed in prepupal, pupal (male and female) weight. Percent pupation was higher in S. litura, which were fed on castor and tobacco i.e., 100 % and 96.67 % respectively, and on C. tora recorded lowest per cent pupation (20 %). Adult emergence rate was found to be non-significant on castor and tobacco fed larvae but the lowest adult emergence was recorded on cassia about 18 %. Feeding of newly hatched instars of S. litura confirms that, it uses C. tora as an alternate host during off-season survival and complete its life cycle. Longer larval duration on C. tora may prone larvae to expose more to the external environment, results in less pupation rate.

Entomopathogenic fungi are potential candidates for controlling the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). The control efficacy of two Isaria fumosorosea conidial formulations-wettable powder and oil-based formulation-combined with Bacillus thuringiensis against P. xylostella was tested. In the laboratory, the combined application of two pathogens increased larval mortality either in an additive or a synergistic way. P. xylostella larvae treated with oil-based formulation died sooner than larvae infected with wettable powder. For pot and field experiments, each formulation was applied alone or combined with B. thuringiensis 668 µg mL(-1) , and then larval mortality, pupation rate, adult emergence rate, female longevity and fecundity were recorded. In pot experiments there was no evidence of any antagonistic effects between the two pathogens. Combined application of B. thuringiensis and a high concentration of the two I. fumosorosea formulations resulted in higher mortality (84.4 and 86.2%) with minimum pupation (15.6 and 11.9%) and adult emergence rates (8.7 and 7.0%). Female longevity and fecundity were significantly reduced by the two formulations at high concentration compared with the control. Similar results were also observed in field experiments. The combined application of I. fumosorosea and B. thuringiensis is a promising alternative strategy for P. xylostella control. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.