Abstract
Reconstruction of bony defects is challenging when conventional grafting methods are used because of their intrinsic limitations (biological cost and/or biological properties). Bone regeneration techniques are rapidly evolving since the introduction of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting. Bone tissue engineering is a branch of regenerative medicine that aims to find new solutions to treat bone defects, which can be repaired by 3D printed living tissues. Its aim is to overcome the limitations of conventional treatment options by improving osteoinduction and osteoconduction. Several techniques of bone bioprinting have been developed: inkjet, extrusion, and light-based 3D printers are nowadays available. Bioinks, i.e., the printing materials, also presented an evolution over the years. It seems that these new technologies might be extremely promising for bone regeneration. The purpose of the present review is to give a comprehensive summary of the past, the present, and future developments of bone bioprinting and bioinks, focusing the attention on crucial aspects of bone bioprinting such as selecting cell sources and attaining a viable vascularization within the newly printed bone. The main bioprinters currently available on the market and their characteristics have been taken into consideration, as well.
Highlights
Bone defects are increasing due to bone fractures, osteodegenerative and tumor diseases, bone regeneration is necessary to replace the damaged tissue, while the improvement of bone healing, both qualitatively and quantitatively, is mandatory
Bone tissue engineering is a branch of regenerative medicine that aims to find new solutions to treat bone defects, which can be repaired by 3D printed living tissues
PCL filaments were utilized as support for collagen or HA hydrogel networks, containing mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) blended with bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-2 or transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) for bone or cartilage engineering, respectively [122]
Summary
Bone defects are increasing due to bone fractures, osteodegenerative and tumor diseases, bone regeneration is necessary to replace the damaged tissue, while the improvement of bone healing, both qualitatively and quantitatively, is mandatory. To overcome the pitfalls of the current procedures mentioned above, researchers have oriented their endeavors to bone tissue engineering (BTE), a branch of regenerative medicine (RM), enabling the production of cell-laden scaffolds, in which bone biological components are assembled to form a three-dimensional (3D) environment [12,13,14]. This innovative avenue of research, harbinger of ground-breaking therapeutic options, has been recently boosted by the advent of a series of techniques, commonly defined as bioprinting, that allow to repair bone defects through 3D-printed living tissues [15]. This review discusses the main factors that are critical for bioprinting in BTE
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