Advances in farm animal genomic resources

The general aim of the thesis was a chronological genetic investigation of archaeological horse remains from Switzerland including mitochondrial d-loop variation, coat colour and sex identification. Three main subjects were in the focus. Firstly, mtDNA preservation of archaeologic horse remains in the context of different burial conditions. A systematic synthesis of the influence of different burial conditions on DNA amplification success concerning teeth and bones from open dry and wetland sites and caves from the Pleistocene until Roman times has been made. It led to the conclusion that Pleistocene material from cave and abri (rockshelter) sites is generally genetically well preserved and it was even possible to obtain genetic information from Neolithic waterlogged bones. The depositional environment is the most influential factor affecting DNA preservation. The age of the specimens also plays a crucial role, although it transpired that samples from very favourable conditions, like deep caves, can be better preserved than younger material. Under similar conditions, older samples are less well preserved and accumulated more post mortem damage derived lesion. Within this project, for the first time all Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites with more than one remain of a certain species, the horse, and a preliminary selection of Iron Age and Roman time samples have been screened for DNA preservation in Switzerland. The outcome of this test is very promising and applicable to other species and further investigations of demographic developments and phenotypic characteristics. The continuous augmentation of data from different depositional contexts and periods is warranted. Secondly, mtDNA d-loop variation of Pleistocene and Early Holocene wild horse populations was investigated and put in context with palaeoclimatological, palaeoenvironmental and archaeological data. For Switzerland, a discontinuous population history within the last 50 k years was described. The demographic development, an expansion after the LGM, was in disagreement to the development in other parts of Eurasia, particularly north eastern Asia, where abundance peaked during the LGM and decreased from then on. The yet low sample sizes from the transition time Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene allows only tentative speculating on the local dispersal/replacement/extinction pattern of wild horses. Beside the methodological challenges due to the discontinuous and unbalanced representation of equid sequences this analysis provided the first comprehensive investigation of wild horse remains from one restricted region. This approach has offered the opportunity to focus on aspects of horse population development that might be overlooked in the global picture by demonstrating sensitive reaction patterns to changing environmental conditions. To draw a picture of Eurasian horse demographic development, it is necessary to follow a comprehensive geographically and chronologically dense sampling approach, comparable to the Swiss example. Thirdly, we examined mtDNA d-loop variation and coat colour of Iron Age domestic horses. A possible genetic differentiation of morphologically different animals was enquired via matrilinear diversity, and the investigation of coat colouration served to detect phenotypical noticeable individuals and to relate their incidence to the archaeological context. Female lineages were highly diverse, yet coat colourations were limited to the basic colours bay, black and chestnut. The few larger horses in our dataset were not genetically distinct from the smaller majority. Breeding interests were apparently focussed on good performance and low maintenance horses, and to avoid inbreeding. This emphasises the skill and expertise Celtic stock keepers executed on this highly valuable and prestigious animal. The lineage diversity present in Iron Age Switzerland does not differ from (roughly) contemporaneous variation in the rest of Europe except for Iberia and is particularly similar to eastern Europe. This finding supports the hypothesis, based on archaeological evidence of e.g. eastern European type bridle fragments, of an eastern origin of Swiss domestic horses. A contribution of local wild mares to the domestic gene pool can be ranked low, not least because they were most probably on the edge of extinction by the 3rd millennium BC. The contextualisation of Swiss wild and ancient domestic horses with the Eurasian variation revealed that, at our current state of knowledge, domestics had higher nucleotide diversity than wild horses. This observation contradicts the general ideas of domestication (bottleneck) and of the velocity of mutation rates (within 5 ka since domestication started). Predictably this ratio will be adjusted as more pre-domestic specimens from Eurasia will be sequenced. Recent technical progress and leaps in the understanding of wild horse genetics (Orlando et al., 2013, Schubert et al., 2014, Imsland et al., 2016) as well as regional approaches to chronological genetic investigations as presented here, are heralding fascinating new insights into the evolution and history of a species as much appreciated as the horse.

Various farm animal breeds have been domesticated and bred for thousands years, and they provide adequate animal-derived proteins to meet the human nutrition requirement. Although quantitative genetics was applied in animal breeding, which launched a technological revolution in the past century, a number of complex traits remain difficult to be selected based on pedigree derived breeding, due to complicated animal genetics and development mechanisms. Farm animal's genetic potential hasn't yet to be fully exploited. The concept and technology from the Human Genome Project have greatly promoted farm animal genomic researches. It is possible to fine map the causal variations at the whole genome level and then exploit their biological functions, thus providing the theoretical basis for molecular designed breeding. In this review, we summarize the genomics research progress of main farm animals during the past decade, including pigs, cattle, yaks, goats, sheep, chickens, ducks and geese. We focus on the reference genome sequencing and follow-up population-level genomic studies based on high throughput resequencing technologies, and meanwhile envision the future work of farm animal genomics.

با بکارگیری نشانگرهای مولکولی، اصلاح گیاهان با سرعت و سهولت بیشتری انجام می‌گیرد و انتخاب والدین برای تلاقی های بعدی در برنامه‌های اصلاحی با اطمینان بیشتری انجام می‌گیرد. در دسترس بودن تعداد بسیار زیادی از نشانگرها و صفات مورفولوژیکی می‌تواند به مطالعه تجزیه رگرسیونی بین این نشانگرها و صفات مورفولوژیکی کمک نماید. در این تحقیق، ارتباط صفات مرتبط با عملکرد در 20 ژنوتیپ پسته با استفاده از 15 آغازگر RAPD مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. در نهایت 11 آغازگر چندشکلی نشان دادند و مجموعا 56 قطعه (لوکوس) را تکثیر کردند که از این بین 36 قطعه (29/64 درصد) چند‌شکلی را با میانگین 09/5 الل به ازای هر پرایمر نشان دادند و میزان این چندشکلی از حداقل 25 درصد برای آغازگر AJ05 تا حداکثر 5/87 درصد برای آغازگر OPAD02 متغیر بود. میانگین محتوای اطلاعاتی حاصل از چند شکلی برای جایگاه‎ها 23/0 و از 095/0 (AJ05 و OPAD14) تا 39/0 (OPC05) متغیر بود. برای شناسایی نشانگرهای مثبت مرتبط با صفات اجزای عملکرد، تجزیه رگرسیون گام به گام بین داده‎های مولکولی به عنوان متغیرهای مستقل و صفات مورد مطالعه به عنوان متغیرهای وابسته انجام گرفت. نوزده قطعه RAPD با شش صفت مرتبط با عملکرد ارتباط داشتند. بعضی از نشانگرهای RAPD با بیشتر از یک صفت در تجزیه رگرسیون چندگانه ارتباط داشت که می‎تواند به خاطر اثر پلیوتروپیک مکان‎های صفات کمی بر روی صفات مختلف یا پیوستگی ژن‌های مختلف باشد. برای درک این موضوع تهیه نسل‌های در حال تفرق و نقشه‌های پیوستگی ضروری می‌باشد. همچنین این نتایج می‎تواند در برنامه‎های اصلاحی انتخاب به کمک نشانگر هنگامی که هیچ اطلاعات ژنتیکی در دسترس نیست، مفید باشد.

Indigenous breeds provide the necessary Genetic diversity needed by modern agriculture as a Means to ensure stability and are vital building blocks for future livestock breeding programmers. Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR) conservation, Collection and processing procedures which different widely depending upon the type of germplasm being collected and the donor species. Due to indigenous FAnGR carry genes that enable them to tolerate harsh environments, cope with thorny vegetation in drought-prone areas, walk long distance and repel attacks by diseases and pests. However, these animal resources are constantly being eroded and are nearing extinction. Conservation is an action to ensure that the diversity of farm animal genetic material is being maintained for contribution to food production, Two methods for the conservation of animal genetic resources In-situ conservation refers to conservation of livestock through continued use by livestock keepers in the production system in which the livestock evolved or are now normally found and Ex-situ (in vivo conservation): Effective conservation of genetic resources is possible only if the breeds are identified and documented adequately. Therefore conservation of FAnGR is useful for the sustainable utilization of genetic resources under different production environment and production system. In this regard, valuation of local breeds should consider their major contribution to risk management under the prevailing hard and fluctuating environmental conditions.

During the past few decades, advances in molecular genetics have led to the identification of multiple genes or genetic markers associated with genes that affect traits of interest in livestock, including genes for single-gene traits and QTL or genomic regions that affect quantitative traits. This has provided opportunities to enhance response to selection, in particular for traits that are difficult to improve by conventional selection (low heritability or traits for which measurement of phenotype is difficult, expensive, only possible late in life, or not possible on selection candidates). Examples of genetic tests that are available to or used in industry programs are documented and classified into causative mutations (direct markers), linked markers in population-wide linkage disequilibrium with the QTL (LD markers), and linked markers in population-wide equilibrium with the QTL (LE markers). In general, although molecular genetic information has been used in industry programs for several decades and is growing, the extent of use has not lived up to initial expectations. Most applications to date have been integrated in existing programs on an ad hoc basis. Direct markers are preferred for effective implementation of marker-assisted selection, followed by LD and LE markers, the latter requiring within-family analysis and selection. Ease of application and potential for extra-genetic gain is greatest for direct markers, followed by LD markers, but is antagonistic to ease of detection, which is greatest for LE markers. Although the success of these applications is difficult to assess, several have been hampered by logistical requirements, which are substantial, in particular for LE markers. Opportunities for the use of molecular information exist, but their successful implementation requires a comprehensive integrated strategy that is closely aligned with business goals. The current attitude toward marker-assisted selection is therefore one of cautious optimism.

In the last two decades genetic research achieved very significant results. In 2015, only few years since the completion of the Human Genome Project, scientists launched new experimental studies to genetically modify the DNA sequence of human embryos. These scientific advances have raised several ethical concerns, promoting issues that involve both natural and human science– including legal studies. Law and ethics frequently have to address the issues originated from these innovations and finding a common toolset often proves to be an arduous task. Genetics has a transnational dimension, experiences a continuous and rapid evolution and spreads new unfamiliar concepts, which ask to be integrated in social and legal culture. Analyzing the path that conducted the US Congress to approve the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, this essay assesses the most common problems in genetic information management in the legal field. In recent studies, the first issue concerns the qualification of genetic data, considering their legal value to identify possible suitable models of protection. With regard to this, U.S. genetic legislation originally presented two different complementary options — antidiscrimination and privacy laws. With the clear intent to foster genetic research and scientific investments, the Federal legislator decided to endorse the protection against discriminations — the most evident effects of the distort use of genetic information — moving privacy to the background. Nevertheless, the limited scope of the Act — health insurance and employment — and the rapid diffusion of genetic tests for extremely varied purposes stressed the loopholes of GINA, suggesting the need to address some issues through the different legal lens of data protection. For such reasons, the Congress, in 2016, introduced a new bill to handle the problem, considering, in particular, privacy in genetic research. Covering the misuses of genetic information safeguarding a lawful employment of data seems a possible way to encourage an aware usage of genetic tests and scientific techniques, taking advantage of their silver linings without harming fundamental rights.

We investigated the effect of LED lamps and incandescent lamp bulbs on the productivity and slaughter quality of Pharaoh breed meat quaility. LED lamps had power output of 16 W, luminous flux of 1400 Lm, and color temperature of 4200 K. Incandescent lamp bulbs had power output of 40 W, luminous flux of 500 Lm, and color temperature of 2300-2900 K. From the 6th day of rearing the light, the intensity was 10-15 Lk within the level of live weight. We established a positive influence of LED lamps on quail slaughter qualities. The quails of experimental group (with LED lamps) had the advantages in terms of live weight (it was higher by 21.5 g or 8.23%, P> 0.999), the gains, feed conversion ratio (higher by 0.2 kg, or 5, 08%), quail liveability (higher by 4%). According to the results of the control slaughter, we admited a striking privilege in the level of slaughter weight and the eviscerated carcass of the poultry of the experimental group. The difference between groups is significant (P> 0.95…0.999). The advantages of the quails from experimental group towards the output of thigh muscles (higher by 0.02%), the drumstick muscles (0.12%), and the liver (by 1.02%) were obvious. The anatomical indices confirmed the influence of indoor lighting source on quali slaughter quality, i.e. the index of carcass food part and leg meat from experimental group were higher, the same was true with the indices of muscle and muscle breast of the quail of the control group with incandescent lamp bulbs. Keywords: Quails; LED lamps; Rearing; Productivity; Slaughter features References Cahaner, A. (1990). Genotype by environment interactions in poultry. Poultry Science, 81 (10), 1454-1462. Chu, T.T., Bastiaansen, J.W.M., Berg, P., Rome, H., Marois, D., Henshall, J. & Jensen. J. (2019). Use of genomic information to exploit genotype-by-environment interactions for body weight of broiler chicken in bio-secure and production environments. Genetics Selection Evolution, 51(50). Guidelines for the anatomical cutting of carcasses and organoleptic assessment of the quality of meat and eggs of poultry and egg morphology (2004). Sergiev Posad: VNITIP (in Russian) Kochish, I., Fedkina, T., Kovinko, V. (2010). Genotype, environment and productivity of broiler. Animal husbandry of Russia, 9, 11-12 (in Russian) Lewis, P.D., Morris, T.R. (1998). Responses of domestic poultry to various light sources. World's Poultry Science Journal, 54, 7-25. Lukanov, H. (2019). Domestic quail (Coturnix japonica domestica), is there such farm animal? World's Poultry Science Journal, 75 (4), 547-558. Manser, C.E. (1996). Effects of lighting on the welfare of domestic poultry: a review. Animal Welfare, 5, 341-360. Melnyk, V.O. (2015). Modern science on the effects of light on birds. Melnyk, V.V., Prokopenko, N.P., Bazyvolyak, S.M. (2019). Poultry farming in Ukraine: poultry and egg and meat production in 2018. Modern poultry, 3-4, 2-8 (in Ukrainian) Melnyk, Yu.F., Kovalenko, V.P., Uhnivenko, A.M. (2008). Selection of farm animals. Kyiv: Intas (in Ukrainian) Minvielle, F. (2004). The future of Japanese quail for research and production. World's Poultry Science Journal, 60 (4), 500-507. Mohov B.P., Krasota, V.F. (1998). Ecological and genetic assessment of the livestock system. Zootechniya, 1, 20-22 (in Russian) Nelson, J.R., Bray, J.L., Delabbio, J., Archer G.S. (2020). Light emitting diode (LED) color and broiler growth: effect of supplementing blue/green LED to white LED light on broiler growth, stress, and welfare. Poultry Science, 99 (7), 3519-3524. Olanrewaju, H.A. , Miller, W.W., Maslin, W.R., Collier, S.D., Purswell, J.L., Branton, S.L. (2018). Influence of light sources and photoperiod on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and health indices of broilers grown to heavy weights. Poultry Science, 97, 1109-1116. Shanawany, M. M. (1994). Quail Production Systems: A Review. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Sultana, S., Hassan, M.R., Chow, H.S., Ryu K.S. (2013). Impact of different monochromatic LED light colours and bird age on the behavioural output and fear response in ducks. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 12 (2013), e94, 573-579. Vakulenko, Yu. (2014). Influence of different light sources on the quality of products of laying hens. Animal husbandry of Ukraine, 8-9, 15-18 (in Ukrainian).

This PhD Thesis includes five main parts on diverse topics. The first two parts deal with the trophic ecology of wolves in Italy consequently to a recent increase of wild ungulates abundance. Data on wolf diet across time highlighted how wild ungulates are important food resource for wolves in Italy. Increasing wolf population, increasing numbers of wild ungulates and decreasing livestock consume are mitigating wolf-man conflicts in Italy in the near future. In the third part, non-invasive genetic sampling techniques were used to obtain genotypes and genders of about 400 wolves. Thus, wolf packs were genetically reconstructed using diverse population genetic and parentage software. Combining the results on pack structure and genetic relatedness with sampling locations, home ranges of wolf packs and dispersal patterns were identified. These results, particularly important for the conservation management of wolves in Italy, illustrated detailed information that can be retrieved from genetic identification of individuals. In the fourth part, wolf locations were combined with environmental information obtained as GIS-layers. Modern species distribution models (niche models) were applied to infer potential wolf distribution and predation risk. From the resulting distribution maps, information pastures with the highest risk of depredation were derived. This is particularly relevant as it allows identifying those areas under danger of carnivore attack on livestock. Finally, in the fifth part, habitat suitability models were combined with landscape genetic analysis. On one side landscape genetic analyses on the Italian wolves provided new information on the dynamics and connectivity of the population and, on the other side, a profound analysis of the effects that habitat suitability methods had on the parameterization of landscape genetic analyses was carried out to contributed significantly to landscape genetic theory.

USING GENETIC INFORMATION IN RISK PREDICTION FOR ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE By Jia Yan, B.A. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Human and Molecular Genetics and Master of Science in Genetic Counseling at Virginia Commonwealth University. Virginia Commonwealth University, 2012. Major Director: Danielle M. Dick, PhD Associate Professor of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Human and Molecular Genetics Family-based and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of alcohol dependence (AD) have reported numerous associated variants. The clinical validity of these variants for predicting AD compared to family history has not yet been reported. These studies aim to explore the aggregate impact of multiple genetic variants with small effect sizes on risk prediction in order to provide a clinical interpretation of genetic contributions to AD. Data simulations showed that given AD’s prevalence and heritability, a risk prediction model incorporating all genetic contributions would have an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) approaching 0.80, which is often a target AUC for screening. Adding additional environmental factors could increase the AUC to 0.95. Using the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) and the Study of Addiction: Genes and Environment (SAGE) GWAS samples, we used several different sources to capture genetic information associated with AD in discovery samples, and then tested genetic sum scores created based on this information for predictive accuracy in validation ii samples. Scores were assessed separately for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated in candidate gene studies and in GWAS analyses. Candidate gene sum scores did not exhibit significant predictive accuracy, but SNPs meeting less stringent p-value thresholds in GWAS analyses did, ranging from mean estimates of 0.549 for SNPs meeting p<0.01 to 0.565 for SNPs meeting p<0.50. Variants associated with subtypes of AD showed that there is similarly modest and significant predictive ability for an externalizing subtype. Scores created based on all individual SNP effects in aggregate across the entire genome accounted for 0.46%-0.57% of the variance in AD symptom count, and have AUCs of 0.527 to 0.559. Additional covariates and environmental factors that are correlated with AD increased the AUC to 0.865. Family history was a better classifier of case-control status than genetic sum scores, with an AUC of 0.686 in COGA and 0.614 in SAGE. This project suggests that SNPs from candidate gene studies and genome-wide association studies currently have limited clinical validity, but there is potential for enhanced predictive ability with better detection of genetic factors contributing to AD.

Background: In developing countries, especially in Southeast Asia, there is a misconception that genetics is only relevant to dysmorphology and prenatal obstetrics. Respiratory diseases, which are the most prevalent, range from simple Mendelian (single gene) diseases to complex (polygenic) disorders, surely have genetic determinants. Now, even in this “post-genomic era” many clinicians are not aware of advances in genetics available for prevention, diagnosis, and therapy of respiratory diseases. Objective: The aim of this study is not to serve as a comprehensive review of genetics or genomics but to highlight genetic information relevant to clinical practice. Here, we describe genetic information pertaining to some of the most frequently encountered respiratory diseases. Methods: The present review was prepared by reviewing the current literature using PubMed and Web of Science searches. Results: Knowledge of the basic principles and genetic terms is important in clinical practice. Based on that knowledge, we can now recognize much progress in the respiratory field. The single gene and complex diseases have been identified. Translating genetic information into prevention, diagnosis, or therapy of such diseases can have great potential benefit for patients. Conclusion: Genomics and molecular genetics could be integrated in the clinical setting. Ultimately, genomic knowledge and approaches will become increasingly important in the clinical setting for many respiratory diseases. Keywords: Genetics, genomics, lung diseases, medical sciences, respiratory

Somatic cloning is emerging as a new biotechnology by which the opportunities arising from the advances in molecular genetics and genome analysis can be implemented in animal breeding. Significant improvements have been made in SCNT protocols in the past years which now allow to embarking on practical applications. The main areas of application of SCNT are: Reproductive cloning, therapeutic cloning and basic research. A great application potential of SCNT based cloning is the production of genetically modified (transgenic) animals. Somatic cell nuclear transfer based transgenic animal production has significant advances over the previously employed microinjection of foreign DNA into pronuclei of zygotes. This cell based transgenesis is compatible with gene targeting and allows both, the addition of a specific gene and the deletion of an endogenous gene. Efficient transgenic animal production provides numerous opportunities for agriculture and biomedicine. Regulatory agencies around the world have agreed that food derived from cloned animals and their offspring is safe and there is no scientific basis for questioning this. Commercial application of somatic cloning within the EU is via the Novel Food regulation EC No. 258/97. Somatic cloning raises novel questions regarding the ethical and moral status of animals and their welfare which has prompted a controversial discussion in Europe which has not yet been resolved.

Salt sensitivity is an independent cardiovascular disease and mortality risk factor, present in both hypertensive and normotensive population. It is genetically determined and it may affect the relationship between salt taste perception and salt intake. The aim of this study was to explore the genetic predisposition to salt sensitivity in young and middle-aged adult population and its effects on salt taste perception and salt intake. Salt sensitivity was investigated in 20 normotensive subjects and defined as the change in blood pressure (BP) after 7 days of low-salt (51.3 mmol sodium/day) and 7 days of high-salt diet (307.8 mmol sodium/day). Salt taste perception was identified using British Standards Institution sensory analysis method (BS ISO 3972:2011). Salt intake was assessed with a validated food frequency questionnaire. DNA was genotyped for single nucleotide polymorphisms in the SLC4A5, SCNN1B and TRPV1 genes coding for sodium and ion channels and transporters. The subjects with the rs7571842 (SLC4A5) AA genotype exhibited the highest increase in BP (systolic BP (∆SBP)=7.75 mmHg, p=0.002; diastolic BP (∆DBP)=6.25 mmHg, p=0.044; mean arterial pressure (∆MAP)=6.5 mmHg, p=0.014). There was an association between salt taste perception and salt sensitivity (rs=0.551, p=0.041) with salt intake being unaffected. There is a genetic predisposition to salt sensitivity and it is associated with salt taste perception. Unaffected salt intake suggests that factors other than taste sensitivity and/or other genetic variants may have more pronounced effects in healthy adults. Moreover, experiments are conducted in our laboratory to increase the understanding of the SLC4A5 effects on salt-sensitive changes in BP. Urine samples have been collected from subjects phenotyped for salt sensitivity to measure the expression of this co-transporter. If differently expressed in salt-sensitive and salt-resistant subjects, together with its genotype, it may serve as a personalised salt sensitivity biomarker.

Canine generalized progressive retinal atrophy (gPRA or PRA) is a group of hereditary retinal photoreceptor diseases that is a leading cause of blindness in the dog. gPRA closely resembles retinitis pigmentosa (RP), the leading cause of inherited blindness in humans . Canine gPRA exhibits autosomal recessive and X-linked modes of inheritance. but the recessive form of gPRA is the more common condition. Progress in molecular genetics has allowed the identification of the gene mutations responsible for two early-onset subtypes of gPRA, namely rod-cone dysplasia type one (rcd 1) in the Irish setter in 1993, and recently rod-cone dysplasia type three (rcd3) in the Cardigan Welsh corgi in 1999, respectively. The gene mutation causing rcd1 is the beta subunit of cyclic guanosine monophosphate phosphodiesterase (cGMP-PDEB) while the mutation of alpha subunit of cGMP (PDEA) causes rcd3. Both genes encode distinct subunits of the cGMP-PDE protein involved in the visual transduction pathway. Investigation of these genes in other dog breeds with gPRA has excluded these genes as the causes of gPRA in those breeds suggesting that the causal gene loci in those breeds are not allelic to the rcd 1 or rcd3. By means of functional candidate gene approach, other retinal genes have been intensively investigated, particularly those genes encoding proteins in the visual transduction pathway and photoreceptor structural proteins in the retina. However, most gene defects causing gPRA in the dog are still unknown. Recent development in the mapping of the canine genome has produced more markers on chromosomes to allow mapping of gPRA genes and positional candidate gene approach. This article will review research advances aimed to characterize subtypes of gPRA and understand the causes of gPRA in the dog.

this special issue of Physiological Genomics highlights 12 papers that reflect presentations made by 110 international delegates of the 2nd International Symposium on Animal Functional Genomics (2nd ISAFG) held May 16th-19th, 2006, at Michigan State University (East Lansing, MI). This was the second

Genetic exceptionalism. Too much of a good thing?