Abstract
Influenza A virus is one of the most important zoonotic pathogens that can cause severe symptoms and has the potential to cause high number of deaths and great economic loss. Vaccination is still the best option to prevent influenza virus infection. Different types of influenza vaccines, including live attenuated virus vaccines, inactivated whole virus vaccines, virosome vaccines, split-virion vaccines and subunit vaccines have been developed. However, they have several limitations, such as the relatively high manufacturing cost and long production time, moderate efficacy of some of the vaccines in certain populations, and lack of cross-reactivity. These are some of the problems that need to be solved. Here, we summarized recent advances in the development and application of different types of influenza vaccines, including the recent development of viral vectored influenza vaccines. We also described the construction of other vaccines that are based on recombinant influenza viruses as viral vectors. Information provided in this review article might lead to the development of safe and highly effective novel influenza vaccines.
Highlights
Influenza A viruses are enveloped RNA viruses with a viral genome [1] consisting of eight segmented negative-sense single-stranded RNAs encoding 10 core proteins known as Polymerase basic 2 (PB2), Polymerase basic 1 (PB1), Polymerase acidic (PA), Hemagglutinin (HA), Nucleoprotein (NP), Neuraminidase (NA), Matrix proteins (M1 and M2) and non-structural proteins (NS1 and NS2) and some other functional accessory proteins, such as Polymerase basic 1F2 (PB1-F2), Polymerase basic 1 N40 (PB1N40), Polymerase acidic-X (PA-X), et al [2,3,4,5,6,7,8]
Live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIV) are produced by the naturally occurring mutations in the influenza virus genome that generate less-virulent strains of influenza virus or by manually passaging a so-called parental influenza virus multiple times in virus-susceptible cells, embryonic chicken eggs or by other processes that make the virus less virulent, i.e., less likely to cause a significant disease in experimentally infected animals
It is worth noting that TheraT® vector that is based on the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) vector and expressing a non-oncogenic fusion of the human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) E7 and E6 open reading frame (ORFs) as modeled tumor-associated antigens as well as a similar viral construct that is based on the Pichinde virus (PICV) are currently entering clinical phase 1 testing as a repeated prime-boost immunization strategy for HPV 16-positive head and neck cancer [131]
Summary
Edited by: Arun Kumar, Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), Norway. Different types of influenza vaccines, including live attenuated virus vaccines, inactivated whole virus vaccines, virosome vaccines, split-virion vaccines and subunit vaccines have been developed. They have several limitations, such as the relatively high manufacturing cost and long production time, moderate efficacy of some of the vaccines in certain populations, and lack of cross-reactivity. These are some of the problems that need to be solved. Information provided in this review article might lead to the development of safe and highly effective novel influenza vaccines
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