Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Among them, hypertension and its pathological complications pose a major risk for the development of other cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure and stroke. Identifying novel and early stage biomarkers of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases is of paramount importance in predicting and preventing the major morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases. Biomarkers of such diseases or predisposition to their development are identified by changes in a specific indicator’s expression between healthy individuals and patients. These include changes in protein and microRNA (miRNA) levels. Protein profiling using mass spectrometry and miRNA screening utilizing microarray and sequencing have facilitated the discovery of proteins and miRNA as biomarker candidates. In this review, we summarized some of the different, promising early stage protein and miRNA biomarker candidates as well as the currently used biomarkers for hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases. Although a number of promising markers have been identified, it is unlikely that a single biomarker will unambiguously aid in the classification of these diseases. A multi-marker panel-strategy appears useful and promising for classifying and refining risk stratification among patients with cardiovascular disease.
Highlights
Since hypertension promotes the development of other Cardiovascular disease (CVD), identifying antecedent, screening, and early stage diagnostic biomarkers is crucial in preventing hypertension-associated CVDs
Namely early stage biomarkers of CVD, could potentially save many lives and help us win the fight against CVDs, all in the field of preventative medicine
The ideal biomarkers of CVD and hypertension or susceptibility to their development can be defined by alterations in a specific indicator’s level/concentration between healthy individuals and patients. These include changes at the level of proteins, genes, and miRNAs. The identification of these molecules is facilitated with the use of proteomic approaches, such as MALDI-TOF and SELDI-TOF, allowing global profiling of the protein complement
Summary
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) refers to a group of disorders that includes hypertension, coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, stroke, congenital heart disease, and heart failure [1]. It is the leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for approximately 17.9 million deaths in 2016 alone [2]. Being a CVD itself, hypertension is a major risk factor for the development of other cardiovascular diseases, such as stroke, renal disease, and heart failure [5,6]. Their walls become stiffer and less elastic, thereby increasing the risk of vascular occlusion and rupture, and subsequently leading to organ damage or failure [11,12]. Hypertension promotes vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) remodeling [12], endothelial cell dysfunction, and atherosclerosis [13]
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