Abstract
Widely deploying sensors in the environment and embedding them in physical objects is a crucial step towards realizing smart and sustainable cities. To cope with rising resource demands and limited budgets, opportunistic networks (OppNets) offer a scalable backhaul option for collecting delay-tolerant data from sensors to gateways in order to enable efficient urban operations and services. While pervasive devices such as smartphones and tablets contribute significantly to the scalability of OppNets, closely following human movement patterns and social structure introduces network characteristics that pose routing challenges. Our study on the impact of these characteristics reveals that existing routing protocols subject a key set of devices to higher resource consumption, to which their users may respond by withdrawing participation. Unfortunately, existing solutions addressing this unfairness do not guarantee achievable throughput since they are not specifically designed for sensed data collection scenarios. Based on concepts derived from the study, we suggest design guidelines for adapting applicable routing protocols to sensed data collection scenarios. We also follow our design guidelines to propose the Fair Locality Aware Routing (FLARoute) technique. Evaluating FLARoute within an existing routing protocol confirms improved fairness and throughput under conditions that compromise the performance of existing solutions.
Highlights
The deployment of sensors in Smart Cities aims to facilitate efficient management of resources and enhance the quality of human life
This paper contributes in the following aspects: 1. Supported with simulation experiments, we investigate the impact of spatial locality inherent to user movement in sensed data collection scenarios on opportunistic networks (OppNets) routing protocols and identify drawbacks of existing burden detection approaches
The protocols are Epidemic, PRoPHET, dLife, Bubble Rap, Spray and Focus [47] (SnF) and the Home Based Routing (HERO) algorithm [52], which divides the geographical area of the network into regions, and forwards messages based on the history of region visits
Summary
The deployment of sensors in Smart Cities aims to facilitate efficient management of resources and enhance the quality of human life. The success of IoT relies on connecting these sensors to the Internet in order to share the generated information across multiple platforms and applications This requires a backhaul for collecting and transmitting data from sensors to gateways that are connected to remote management centres through the Internet [1]. Based on the store-carry-forward (SCF) communication paradigm, data-bundles (or messages) are stored in device memory, carried from one point to another via user movement, and forwarded to another device (through available wireless communication interfaces such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi) when they encounter each other (i.e., when the devices are within radio transmission range) In this manner, user devices act as routers that physically carry messages from their sources and eventually deliver them to their respective destinations in multiple hops. These benefits have motivated various contributions including feasibility studies with mobility datasets [11], spatial analysis [16], evaluation testbeds [12], experiments with Bluetooth Low Energy [17], and duty-cycling mechanisms for extending sensor lifetime [18]
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