ADAPTATION, CONSTRAINT, AND COMPROMISE IN AVIAN POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT

Variation among bird species in growth rates is traditionally attributed to differences in energy availability and developmental mode. However, the extent and form of competition among siblings for limited food resources may also be an important determinant. Kin-selection-based models of intrabrood competition suggest that nestling growth rates should be highest in those species in which siblings are likely to be less genetically related to one another (half-sibs rather than full-sibs). We test this novel prediction using the frequency of multiple paternity as an index of average sib relatedness within broods. As predicted, we find a significant positive association between the rate of multiple paternity within broods and nestling growth rates. Furthermore, this holds true when we control for the effects of variation in other factors that may be associated with variation in growth rate, such as body size, brood size, mating system and the form of parental care. We suggest, therefore, that variation in growth rate among bird species is not simply dependent on proximate ecological and developmental factors but is also strongly influenced by interactions, over an evolutionary time-scale, among kin.

Plasma metabolite levels predict bird growth rates: A field test of model predictive ability

Eggshell structure, mode of development and growth rate in birds

This paper reviews studies on growth and size-structure dynamics of shoots and clones in clonal plants in comparison with those in non-clonal plants, and discusses the characteristics of clonal plants. The mode of competition between individuals (symmetric versus asymmetric, degree of competitive asymmetry), growth dynamics of individuals, allocation pattern between organs and spatial pattern of individuals are closely correlated with each other in non-clonal plant populations. Theoretical and field studies based on the diffusion model revealed that plants of “height-growth” type (mostly early-successional tree species) and plants of “diameter-growth” type (mostly late-successional tree species) tend to exhibit asymmetric competition and symmetric competition respectively. Moreover, asymmetrically competing plants show smaller effects of variation in individual growth rate and spatial pattern on the size-structure dynamics of the population than symmetrically competing plants. Thefefore, the spatial pattern of inviduals should be considered especially for plants undergoing symmetric competition. These results for non-clonal plants should have a significant implication also for the growth dynamics and competition in clonal plants. The mean growth rate of shoots [G(t,x) function] and hence the mode of competition between shoots differs among clonal plant species as in non-clonal plants. However, a large magnitude and size-independence (or slightly negative size-dependence) of the variation in growth rate of shoots [D(t,x) function], especially at the early stage in a growing season is a common characteristic of many clonal plant species, in contrast to the positively size-dependent variation in individual growth rate in non-clonal plants. This type of variation in shoot growth rate leads to the persistence of stable shoot populations even when the mean growth rate function is changed, and also in cases where the shoot population structure would be unstable in the absence of variation in growth rate. It is suggested that competition between clones is symmetric in most clonal plant species, which brings about small-scale spatio-temporal changes in species abundance and hence species diversity.

Variation in somatic growth rates is of great interest to biologists because of the relationship between growth and other fitness-determining traits, and it results from both genetic and environmentally induced variation (i.e. plasticity). Theoretical predictions suggest that mean somatic growth rates and the shape of the reaction norm for growth can be influenced by variation in predator-induced mortality rates. Few studies have focused on variation in reaction norms for growth in response to resource availability between high-predation and low-predation environments. We used juvenile Brachyrhaphis rhabdophora from high-predation and low-predation environments to test for variation in mean growth rates and for variation in reaction norms for growth at two levels of food availability in a common-environment experiment. To test for variation in growth rates in the field, we compared somatic growth rates in juveniles in high-predation and low-predation environments. In the common-environment experiment, mean growth rates did not differ between fish from differing predation environments, but the interaction between predation environment and food level took the form of a crossing reaction norm for both growth in length and mass. Fish from low-predation environments exhibited no significant difference in growth rate between high and low food treatments. In contrast, fish from high-predation environments exhibited variation in growth rates between high and low food treatments, with higher food availability resulting in higher growth rates. In the field, individuals in the high-predation environment grow at a faster rate than those in low-predation environments at the smallest sizes (comparable to sizes in the common-environment experiment). These data provide no evidence for evolved differences in mean growth rates between predation environments. However, fish from high-predation environments exhibited greater plasticity in growth rates in response to resource availability suggesting that predation environments may exhibit increased variation in food availability for prey fish and consequent selection for plasticity.

Five colonies of black coral Leiopathes sp. were collected as bycatch from depths of 293 to 366 m from the Condor, Acor, and Voador seamounts (Azores region). The colonies had axial diameters between 4.9 and 33.1 mm and heights between 43 and 175 cm. Their ages and radial growth rates were estimated using radiocarbon dating. Results indicated that the smallest and largest colonies had similar radial growth rates of 5 to 7 µm yr �1 , whereas the other 3 colonies had grown more rapidly by a factor of 3 to 5 at ~20 to 30 µm yr �1 . Colony lifespan ranged between 265 ± 90 and 2320 ± 90 yr. Fine-scale sampling along a radial transect from the edge to the center of the 2320 yr old Leiopathes sp. revealed variable growth rates throughout the colony lifespan. Slower radial growth rates of ~4 to 5 µm yr �1 were recorded over the initial 1600 yr and the last 300 yr of its life span, and a period of more rapid growth (20 µm yr �1 ) over the intermediate 400 yr of its life. Variability in radial growth rates among colonies resulted in colony ages that were not linearly correlated to colony axis diameter or height. Our findings of great longevity and slow growth rates for Leiopathes sp. agree with other Leiopathes sp. age and growth studies, indicating that colony and population recovery from damage or removal may take centuries to millennia.

Trade-offs between life history traits are context dependent; they vary depending on environment and life stage. Negative associations between development and growth often characterize larval life stages. Both growth and development consume large parts of the energy budget of young animals. The metabolic rate of animals should reflect differences in growth and developmental rates. Growth and development can also have negative associations with immune function because of their costs. We investigated how intraspecific variation in growth and development affected the metabolism of larval amphibians and whether intraspecific variation in growth, development, and metabolic rate could predict mortality and viral load in larvae infected with ranavirus. We also compared the relationship between growth and development before and after infection with ranavirus. We hypothesized that growth and development would affect metabolism and predicted that each would have a positive correlation with metabolic rate. We further hypothesized that allocation toward growth and development would increase ranavirus susceptibility and therefore predicted that larvae with faster growth, faster development, and higher metabolic rates would be more likely to die from ranavirus and have higher viral loads. Finally, we predicted that growth rate and developmental rate would have a negative association. Intraspecific variation in growth rate and developmental rate did not affect metabolism. Growth rate, developmental rate, and metabolism did not predict mortality from ranavirus or viral load. Larvae infected with ranavirus exhibited a trade-off between developmental rate and growth rate that was absent in uninfected larvae. Our results indicate a cost of ranavirus infection that is potentially due to both the infection-induced anorexia and the cost of infection altering priority rules for resource allocation.

Predators affect dynamics of prey populations not only by decreasing their survivorship, but also by changing other vital rates such as growth and reproduction. However, such nonlethal effects have rarely been examined experimentally in the field. In North Carolina estuaries, the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria generally shows lower growth rates in habitats where predation rates are higher. Predator avoidance behavior of the clams (feeding inhibition) might be one of the factors responsible for this correlation. To examine possible effects of predators on clam growth, I first compared variation in clam growth rate among habitats with different predation pressure, and between predator-exclusion cages and uncaged controls. I then carried out a predator-enclosure experiment using the clam and the whelk Busycon carica, a major predator on adult clams. Among-habitat variation in survivorship, predation rate, and growth rate was generally small or not detected in winter, while large variation was found for adult clams in spring, their major growing season. Growth rate of adults was highest in a mud bottom where survivorship was highest (>60%) due to low predation rates, and it was lowest in an oyster shell bottom where survivorship was lowest (<10%). For juveniles, on the other hand, growth rate did not differ significantly among habitats, nor did survivorship. Clams in the predator-exclusion cages showed nearly twice the growth rate of uncaged controls in spring but not in winter. Clam growth rates were thus lower in habitats with lower survivorship and higher predation rates, suggesting that the predators can affect growth rates. In the whelk-enclosure experiment, the clams were enclosed in cages with three different treatments: (1) with whelks capable of attacking clams, (2) with whelks isolated from the prey, and (3) without whelks (control). The shell and somatic growth rates of the clam were at least twice as high in the control than in the two experimental treatments. However, the growth rates did not differ significantly between the two experimental treatments. The clam growth rates were therefore reduced in the presence of whelks even with no direct contact between whelks and clams, suggesting that the decrease in growth rates is due to a behavioral response of the prey to indirect cues, such as water-borne chemical signals produced by whelks. These findings show that predatory whelks can affect clam population dynamics not only by decreasing survivorship directly, but also by decreasing future reproduction and survivorship indirectly by suppressing growth rates, and that the predator-avoidance behavior observed in previous studies has significant demographic consequences. The nonlethal effects of predation on clam growth rate may also be responsible for observed variation in growth rates among habitats.

How demographic factors lead to variation or change in growth rates can be investigated using life table response experiments (LTRE) based on structured population models. Traditionally, LTREs focused on decomposing the asymptotic growth rate, but more recently decompositions of annual 'realized' growth rates using 'transient' LTREs have gained in popularity. Transient LTREs have been used particularly to understand how variation in vital rates translate into variation in growth for populations under long-term study. For these, complete population models may be constructed to investigate how temporal variation in environmental drivers affect vital rates. Such investigations have usually come down to estimating covariate coefficients for the effects of environmental variables on vital rates, but formal ways of assessing how they lead to variation in growth rates have been lacking. We extend transient LTREs to further partition the contributions from vital rates into contributions from temporally varying factors that affect them. The decomposition allows one to compare the resultant effect on the growth rate of different environmental factors, as well as density dependence, which may each act via multiple vital rates. We also show how realized growth rates can be decomposed into separate components from environmental and demographic stochasticity. The latter is typically omitted in LTRE analyses. We illustrate these extensions with an integrated population model (IPM) for data from a 26 years study on northern wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe), a migratory passerine bird breeding in an agricultural landscape. For this population, consisting of around 50-120 breeding pairs per year, we partition variation in realized growth rates into environmental contributions from temperature, rainfall, population density and unexplained random variation via multiple vital rates, and from demographic stochasticity. The case study suggests that variation in first year survival via the unexplained random component, and adult survival via temperature are two main factors behind environmental variation in growth rates. More than half of the variation in growth rates is suggested to come from demographic stochasticity, demonstrating the importance of this factor for populations of moderate size.

Summary Variation in post‐natal growth rates is substantial among organisms and especially strong among latitudes because tropical and south temperate species typically have slower growth than north temperate relatives. Metabolic rate is thought to be a critical mechanism underlying growth rates after accounting for allometric effects of body mass. However, comparative tests on a large spatial scale are lacking, and the importance of metabolism for growth rates remains unclear both within and particularly across latitudes. Songbirds exhibit strong interspecific variation in growth rates across geographic space, although within latitudes an association between metabolic rate and growth rate has not always been observed. Moreover, the hypothesis that differences in growth rates across latitudes reflect underlying differences in metabolism is untested. Here, we investigate these possibilities across north temperate, south temperate and tropical study sites. Phylogenetic analyses showed that, for a given body mass, metabolic rates of north temperate nestlings were higher than tropical and south temperate species. Metabolic rates controlled for body mass correlated with post‐natal growth rates both within and among latitudes. Offspring body mass explained substantial residual variation in growth rates as expected under classic allometric theory. Our results suggest that variation in metabolic rates has an important influence on broad patterns of avian growth rates at a global scale. We suggest further studies that address the ecological and physiological costs and consequences of variation in metabolism and growth rates.

Spatial and temporal variation in length‐at‐age and environmental factors affecting variation in growth rate of juvenile Atlantic salmonSalmo salarwere studied using data from a long‐term study in the River Stjørdalselva, central Norway. Mean annual instantaneous growth rate among 1+ and 2+year juvenile Atlantic salmon varied between 0·59 and 1·50 g g−1 year−1and mean instantaneous daily growth rate of young‐of‐the‐year (YOY) varied between 0·013 and 0·033 g g−1 day−1. Between year variation in growth was larger than the within year intra‐watercourse spatial variation. For YOY and 1+year Atlantic salmon, a major part of the observed between year variation in growth rates was explained by variation in mean daily water discharge and spring temperature. For 2+year juvenile Atlantic salmon, mean daily water discharge and cohort density were the only variables to significantly explain variation in growth rates. A large part of the within water‐course spatial variation could not be explained by temperature variations and juvenile Atlantic salmon in the uppermost areas of the river, experiencing the lowest ambient temperatures during the growth period, displayed the highest growth rates. Within the baselines set by temperature, biotic and abiotic factors connected to water flow regime and variation in food availability are suggested to be a major determinants of the temporal and spatial variation in juvenile Atlantic salmon growth rates.

Estuaries are vital nursery grounds for many marine fishes. During initial estuarine residence, juvenile fishes presumably benefit greatly from rapid growth, which can diminish susceptibility to size-selective predators. To measure the degree of variability in growth rates across different estuarine sites and habitats. I conducted caging experiments with 3 species (Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Tautoga onitis, and Gobiosoma bosci) at 4 sites in New Jersey, USA, estuaries. Two sites were in an estuary with dense eelgrass Zostera marina beds (Little Egg Harbor) and 2 were in an estuary lacking eelgrass but supporting patchy accumulations of the macroalgae Ulva lactuca (Great Bay). Experiments were conducted in vegetated (either Zostera or Ulva) and unvegetated habitats at each site. Relative differences in growth rates among the 4 sites and between the 2 habitats were generally maintained across experiments withln species, suggesting a consistency in foraging value. For all 3 species, growth .was highest at a Great Bay site and generally lowest at a httle Egg Harbor site. The presence of vegetation (either Zostera or Ulva) was beneficial to growth only for T onitis. Observed patterns in water temperature, sediment structure, and food availability were potential factors effecting the observed differences in growth rates. Natural densities of the 3 fish species were quantified and compared to the results of growth experiments to determine if there were trade-offs between rapid growth and other attributes of habitat quality. P. americanus and T onitis were more abundant in areas supporting faster growth, but the complete absence of tautog from unvegetated substrates suggested some degree of habitat avoidance. A clear trade-off between habitat selection and foraging quality occurred for G. bosci; gobies were most abundant inside eelgrass beds, which supported the poorest growth rates.

Variation in the growth rate of long bones is a function of the number of dividing cells in the columns of the proliferation (flat) cell zone of the growth plate, the frequency with which they divide, and the size to which they grow prior to ossification. In a previous study we found that the wide variation in bone growth rates seen among species of birds was largely associated with variation in the numbers of cells in the flat cell zone. Here we have undertaken a similar study of the growth plates of mammals and have examined variation in the morphology and cell kinetics of the tibial growth plates of a variety of species. The bone growth rates tended to he lower than those observed in birds and were particularly low in the anthropoid primates. Although quite marked variation in flat cell numbers is apparent, the results suggest that variation in cell division rate may play a relatively greater role in variation in bone growth rate among mammals than it does in birds. and that the very low hone growth rates seen in the primates are due, in part, to lower rates of cell division than in other species.

Previous articleNext article No AccessNotes and CommentsIs Interspecific Variation in Relative Growth Rate Positively Correlated with Biomass Allocation to the Leaves?Hendrik Poorter, and Hans LambersHendrik Poorter Search for more articles by this author , and Hans Lambers Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The American Naturalist Volume 138, Number 5Nov., 1991 Published for The American Society of Naturalists Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/285282 Views: 5Total views on this site Citations: 24Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1991 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Gabriela Woźniak, Damian Chmura, Marcin K. Dyderski, Agnieszka Błońska, Andrzej M. Jagodziński How different is the forest on post-coal mine heap regarded as novel ecosystem?, Forest Ecology and Management 515 (Jul 2022): 120205.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120205Maria Amélia Martins-Loução, Teresa Dias, Cristina Cruz Integrating Ecological Principles for Addressing Plant Production Security and Move beyond the Dichotomy ‘Good or Bad’ for Nitrogen Inputs Choice, Agronomy 12, no.77 (Jul 2022): 1632.https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071632Maria Pepe, Loretta Gratani, Maria Fiore Crescente, Giacomo Puglielli, Laura Varone Daily Temperature Effect on Seedling Growth Dynamic of Three Invasive Alien Species, Frontiers in Plant Science 13 (Mar 2022).https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.837449Prakash Bhattarai, Zhoutao Zheng, Kuber Prasad Bhatta, Yagya Prasad Adhikari, Yangjian Zhang Climate-Driven Plant Response and Resilience on the Tibetan Plateau in Space and Time: A Review, Plants 10, no.33 (Mar 2021): 480.https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10030480Vanessa Buzzard, Sean T. Michaletz, Ye Deng, Zhili He, Daliang Ning, Lina Shen, Qichao Tu, Joy D. Van Nostrand, James W. Voordeckers, Jianjun Wang, Michael D. Weiser, Michael Kaspari, Robert B. Waide, Jizhong Zhou, Brian J. Enquist Continental scale structuring of forest and soil diversity via functional traits, Nature Ecology & Evolution 3, no.99 (Aug 2019): 1298–1308.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0954-7Sarathi M. Weraduwage, Marcelo L. Campos, Yuki Yoshida, Ian T. Major, Yong-Sig Kim, Sang-Jin Kim, Luciana Renna, Fransisca C. Anozie, Federica Brandizzi, Michael F. Thomashow, Gregg A. Howe, Thomas D. Sharkey Molecular Mechanisms Affecting Cell Wall Properties and Leaf Architecture, (Oct 2018): 209–253.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93594-2_8Jianshuang Wu, Susanne Wurst, Xianzhou Zhang Plant functional trait diversity regulates the nonlinear response of productivity to regional climate change in Tibetan alpine grasslands, Scientific Reports 6, no.11 (Oct 2016).https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35649Vanessa Buzzard, Catherine M. Hulshof, Trevor Birt, Cyrille Violle, Brian J. Enquist, Markku Larjavaara Re‐growing a tropical dry forest: functional plant trait composition and community assembly during succession, Functional Ecology 30, no.66 (Oct 2015): 1006–1013.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12579R. Milla, J. Morente-López, T. Peeters Limited evolutionary divergence of seedlings after the domestication of plant species, Plant Biology 17, no.11 (Jun 2014): 169–176.https://doi.org/10.1111/plb.12220Dianne B. J. Taylor, Kunjithapatham Dhileepan Comparative growth and biomass allocation of two varieties of cat's claw creeper, Dolichandra unguis-cati (Bignoniaceae) in Australia, Australian Journal of Botany 60, no.77 (Jan 2012): 650.https://doi.org/10.1071/BT12117Javier G. Puntieri, Soledad Ghirardi Growth-unit structure in trees: effects of branch category and position on Nothofagus nervosa, N. obliqua and their hybrids (Nothofagaceae), Trees 24, no.44 (Apr 2010): 657–665.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-010-0435-8Mark Westoby Generalization in Functional Plant Ecology, (Dec 2009).https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420007626.ch23S. A. Greco, J. B. Cavagnaro Growth characteristics associated with biomass production in three varieties of Trichloris crinita (Poaceae), a forage grass native to the arid regions of Argentina, The Rangeland Journal 27, no.22 (Jan 2005): 135.https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ05011Michael Lawson TREE RELATED SUBSIDENCE OF LOW RISE BUILDINGS AND THE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS, Arboricultural Journal 27, no.33 (Mar 2012): 191–219.https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2004.9747379Thomas J. Givnish, Rebecca A. Montgomery, Guillermo Goldstein Adaptive radiation of photosynthetic physiology in the Hawaiian lobeliads: light regimes, static light responses, and whole‐plant compensation points, American Journal of Botany 91, no.22 (Feb 2004): 228–246.https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.2.228HANS LAMBERS, HENDRIK POORTER Inherent Variation in Growth Rate Between Higher Plants: A Search for Physiological Causes and Ecological Consequences, (Jan 2004): 283–362.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2504(03)34004-8 Karl J. Niklas and Brian J. Enquist On the Vegetative Biomass Partitioning of Seed Plant Leaves, Stems, and Roots. K. J. Niklas and B. J. Enquist, The American Naturalist 159, no.55 (Jul 2015): 482–497.https://doi.org/10.1086/339459M. A. Zavala, J. M. Espelta, Javier Retana Constraints and trade-offs in Mediterranean plant communities: The case of holm oak-Aleppo pine forests, The Botanical Review 66, no.11 (Jan 2000): 119–149.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02857785 Roderick Hunt and J. H. C. Cornelissen Physiology, Allocation, and Growth Rate: A Reexamination of the Tilman Model Hunt & Cornelissen, The American Naturalist 150, no.11 (Jul 2015): 122–130.https://doi.org/10.1086/286059Tharman Saverimuttu, Mark Westoby Components of variation in seedling potential relative growth rate: phylogenetically independent contrasts, Oecologia 105, no.33 (Feb 1996): 281–285.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00328729Peter Ryser, Hans Lambers Root and leaf attributes accounting for the performance of fast- and slow-growing grasses at different nutrient supply, Plant and Soil 170, no.22 (Mar 1995): 251–265.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00010478D. Tilman Community Diversity and Succession: The Roles of Competition, Dispersal, and Habitat Modification, (Jan 1994): 327–344.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-58001-7_15Stefan E. B. 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We tested whether temperature-induced variation in the growth rate of Rana cascadae tadpoles caused any variation in head width or leg length at metamorphosis, independent of the effects of temperature on body size. Body-size-adjusted head width appears to be insensitive to even large variations in tadpole growth rate. This result mirrors previous observations on the effects of variation in food level and temperature on metric shape in frogs and other ectothermic vertebrates. Leg length, on the other hand, showed a small but statistically significant response to the temperature treatment. Fast-growing tadpoles attained slightly longer legs than slowly growing tadpoles at a common metamorphic body size. This example is the first to show that variation in growth rate per se can influence metric shape (i.e., the rate at which individuals reach a common body size determines their shape at that size). Nevertheless, the induced effects were small, and our results taken together with those of previous studies suggest that environmentally induced variation in growth rate is not a major source of variation in metric shape of skeletal characters in ectothermic vertebrates.