Abstract
Several species of the dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis produce toxins that accumulate in bivalves when they feed on populations of these organisms. The accumulated toxins can lead to intoxication in consumers of the affected bivalves. The risk of intoxication depends on the amount and toxic power of accumulated toxins. In this review, current knowledge on the main processes involved in toxin accumulation were compiled, including the mechanisms and regulation of toxin acquisition, digestion, biotransformation, compartmentalization, and toxin depuration. Finally, accumulation kinetics, some models to describe it, and some implications were also considered.
Highlights
Some dinoflagellates of the genus Dinophysis produce toxins belonging to the okadaic acid group and/or to pectenotoxins (PTXs)
In some species of the genus Dinophysis, such as D. acuta [40,41,42], diol esters have been found and their presence is suspected in others like D. ovum and D. acuminata, in view of the increase in free okadaic acid acid (OA) produced by the alkaline hydrolysis of the extracts of a bloom [43,44]
The ingested particles could be selectively diverted to the intestine and eliminated with feces without further processing by post-ingestive selection, which has been documented for several species and types of particles [92,104,105,106]. This kind of selection has not been demonstrated for Dinophysis, but it was shown for another okadaic acid producer [107,108], Prorocentrum lima, where this mechanism was hypothesized as being a way to reduce the accumulation of the toxin and avoid its possible effects [108]
Summary
Some dinoflagellates of the genus Dinophysis produce toxins belonging to the okadaic acid group (okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins, OA and DTXs, respectively) and/or to pectenotoxins (PTXs). Dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1) was identified in 1982 as the substance responsible for a toxic syndrome (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning, DSP) [1,2], which affected more than 1600 people in Japan [3] This toxin is a 35-R-Methyl derivative of okadaic acid, a compound that had previously been isolated from two sponges of the genus Halichondria (H. okadai and H. melanodocia) [4], and which since has been associated with numerous DSP outbreaks occurring all over the world [5,6,7,8,9]. [1,2], affected more than 1600 peopleresources in Japan (including aquaculture) to preserve public health and minimize the economic losses fishermenbeen and [3] This toxin is a 35-R-Methyl derivative of okadaic acid, a compound that had of previously farmers management have costs and these canmelanodocia) be high, depending the isolated [14]. The regulatory level in Europe is the same as the one for the toxins of the OA group (quantified jointly) [11]
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