Abstract
Apicomplexa are single-celled eukaryotes that can infect humans and include the mosquito-borne parasite Plasmodium, the cause of malaria. Increasing rates of drug resistance in human-only Plasmodium species are reducing the efficacy of control efforts and antimalarial treatments. There are also rising cases of P. knowlesi, the only zoonotic Plasmodium species that causes severe disease and death in humans. Thus, there is a need to develop additional innovative strategies to combat malaria. Viruses that infect non-Plasmodium spp. Disease-causing protozoa have been shown to affect pathogen life cycle and disease outcomes. However, only one virus (Matryoshka RNA virus 1) has been identified in Plasmodium, and none have been identified in zoonotic Plasmodium species. The rapid expansion of the known RNA virosphere using structure- and artificial intelligence-based methods suggests that this dearth is due to the divergent nature of RNA viruses that infect protozoa. We leveraged these newly uncovered data sets to explore the virome of human-infecting Plasmodium species collected in Sabah, east (Borneo) Malaysia. We identified a highly divergent RNA virus in two human-infecting P. knowlesi isolates that is related to the unclassified group 'ormycoviruses'. By characterising fifteen additional ormycoviruses identified in the transcriptomes of arthropods we show that this group of viruses exhibits a complex ecology at the arthropod-mammal interface. Through the application of artificial intelligence methods, we then demonstrate that the ormycoviruses are part of a diverse and unclassified viral taxon. This is the first observation of an RNA virus in a zoonotic Plasmodium species. By linking small-scale experimental data to large-scale virus discovery advances, we characterise the diversity and genomic architecture of an unclassified viral taxon. This approach should be used to further explore the virome of disease-causing Apicomplexa and better understand how protozoa-infecting viruses may affect parasite fitness, pathobiology, and treatment outcomes.
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