A Transnational View

Abstract

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes [1] This is happening currently in Malaysia with the introduction of ASTRO. [2] The best and pioneering example here is that of ABC in the United States led by programming guru Roone Arledge who was cloned around the globe as by, for example, Australian David Hill who introduced ‘Wide World of Sport’ for Kerry Packer's Channel 9 and then, later, went to FOX to reshape American football coverage for Rupert Murdoch. [3] For example, see the grant of almost US$1 million (along with a naval promotion) given by the government of Thailand to 1996 Olympic gold medallist featherweight boxer Somluk Kamsing, and the formulation of a National Sports Act by the Government of Malaysia, as well as the serious efforts made by the Government of South Africa to have sport become a major vehicle for that country's ‘re-entry’ to the world in the post-apartheid era. [4] The rise of university-based programmes in sports management around the globe, and the associated rise of publications like the Cyber-Journal of Sports Management (an Internet-based publication) underline this point. [5] On this general point, see Stoddart, ‘Convergence: Sport upon the Information Superhighway’. For a print-based but rapidly dating guide to sport on the Net, see Maloni Maloni, K., Greenman, B. and Miller, K. 1995. Netsports, New York: Random-Woolf. [Google Scholar], Greenman and Miller, Netsports. [6] As examples of the debates, see: Bourdieu Bourdieu, P. 1988. Program for a Sociology of Sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘Program for a Sociology of Sport’; Gruneau Gruneau, R. S. 1983. Sports, Class, and Social Development, Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. [Google Scholar], ‘The Critique of Sport in Modernity’; and, in particular, the exchange between Douglas Booth and William J. Morgan Morgan, W. J. 1994. Leftist Theories of Sport: A Critique and Reconstruction, Champaign, IL: VIP. [Google Scholar] over the latter's Leftist Theories of Sport-see Sporting Traditions Sporting Traditions. 12, no. 2 (May 1996). [Google Scholar] 12, 2 (May 1996). [7] One longstanding exception here has been Janet Lever Lever, J. 1983. Soccer Madness, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]'s work on Brazilian football, Soccer Madness. [8] Perhaps his most important works here are, first, Orientalism, and, second, Culture and Imperialism. [9] Foucault Foucault, M. 1994. Order of Things: Archaeology of the Human Sciences, New York: Vintage. [Google Scholar], Order of Things. [10] Some scholars of sport now argue that the study of sport is more widely recognized in scholarly fields, but a brief review of undergraduate texts in history, sociology and anthropology would suggest otherwise. [11] See, for example, the special issue of the Journal of Sport and Social Issues 20, 3 (Aug. 1996). [12] This has been the subject of much argument in some quarters – see Rowe and Lawrence, ‘Beyond National Sport’ which continues a spat between sociologists and historians which does lead to further understanding of the sport phenomenon. [13] Anthropologists, of course, will see here the importance of ritual. For present purposes, Hobsbawm and Ranger Hobsbawm, E. J. and Terence Ranger, eds. 1983. The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] (eds), The Invention of Tradition. [14] For the baseball story, Whiting Whiting, R. 1990. You Gotta Have Wa, New York: Vintage. [Google Scholar], You Gotta Have Wa; Cromartie Cromartie, W. 1992. Slugging It out in Japan: An American Major Leaguer in the Tokyo Outfield, New York: Signet. (with R. Whiting) [Google Scholar] (with Robert Whiting), Slugging It out in Japan. [15] ‘Sumo Wrestling In Grip Of Corruption’, Daily Telegraph 22 May 1996. [16] Norman Sklarewitz, ‘Is This The Next Nomo?’, Asiaweek 30 May 1996. [17] Some background is set out in Stoddart Stoddart, B. 1985. “Sport, Culture and International Relations: England Versus Germany, 1935”. In Sport History, Edited by: Muller, N. and Ruhl, J. Niederhausen: Schors Verlag. [Google Scholar], ‘Wide World of Golf’. [18] An interesting response to all this comes in the form of the Global Anti-Golf Movement (GAGM). For some of its approach, see GAGM Update, 1 (1996). [19] The beginning point is James James, C. L. R. 1963. Beyond a Boundary, London: Hutchinson. [Google Scholar], Beyond a Boundary; an important milestone was Patterson Patterson, O. 1969. The Ritual of Cricket. Jamaica Journal, 3 [Google Scholar]'s ‘The Ritual of Cricket’; and a convenient collection of the range is Beckles and Stoddart Beckles, H. and Stoddart, B., eds. 1995. Liberation Cricket: West Indies Cricket Culture, Manchester: Manchester University Press. [Google Scholar] (eds), Liberation Cricket. [20] For an overview of this point, see Stoddart Stoddart, B. 1986. Saturday Afternoon Fever: Sport in the Australian Culture, Sydney: Angus & Robertson. [Google Scholar], ‘Sport, Cultural Imperialism and Colonial Response in the British Empire’. The most often-cited work is Brookes Brookes, C. 1978. English Cricket: The Game and the Players through the Ages, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. [Google Scholar], English Cricket. [21] For the 1935 story, see Stoddart, ‘Sport, Culture and International Relations’. For a literary reference to the Spurs image, King, The Football Factory, 55. [22] Marqusee Marqusee, M. 1994. Anyone but England: Cricket and the National Malaise, London: Verso. [Google Scholar], Anyone but England. The advantage of being a cultural ‘outsider’ in such circumstances is a reminder of the point made by C. Wright Mills about the amount of ‘cultural baggage’ taken for granted when analysing one's own culture – see the chapter on ‘history’ in his The Sociological Imagination. [23] Mosley has done the most work on these issues: ‘Ethnic Involvement in Australian Soccer’. [24] A good guide to this is Grundlingh Grundlingh, A. 1994. Playing for Power? Rugby, Afrikaaner Nationalism and Masculinity in South Africa, c. 1900–70. International Journal of the History of Sport, 11(3)[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], ‘Playing For Power’. [25] Regalado Regalado, S. O. 1992. Sport and Community in California's Japanese American Yamato Colony, 1930–1945. Journal of Sport History, 19(2) [Google Scholar], ‘Sport and Community in California's Japanese American Yamato Colony’. [26] In one such club in Australia, for example, part of the entry procedure requires provision of twelve referees who will attest to the applicant's good standing. As one applicant pointed out, it is easier to get into the national parliament than into that club. Interview material. [27] For example, Tatz and Stoddart Tatz, C. and Stoddart, B. 1993. The Royal Sydney Golf Club: The First Hundred Years, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. [Google Scholar], The Royal Sydney Golf Club. [28] Fieldwork observations. [29] This story and its context may be followed conveniently in Linnell Linnell, G. 1995. Football Lid: The inside Story of the AFL, Sydney: Macmillan. [Google Scholar], Football Lid. [30] Kruger and Riordan Kruger, A. and Riordan, J., eds. 1996. The Story of Worker Sport, Champaign, IL: HKP. [Google Scholar] (eds), The Story of Worker Sport. [31] This is demonstrated in literary form in such works as David Williamson's play, The Club, about the Collingwood Football Club in Melbourne first screened in 1980. [32] Huntington Huntington, S. P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York: Simon and Shuster. [Google Scholar], The Clash of Civilizations, 197. [33] For some approaches to sports politics, see Allison Allison, L., ed. 1993. The Changing Politics of Sport, Manchester: Manchester University Press. [Google Scholar] (ed), The Changing Politics of Sport; Hill Hill, C. R. 1992. Olympic Politics, Manchester: Manchester University Press. [Google Scholar], Olympic Politics; Houlihan, Sport and International Politics. [34] Star, 26 March 1997. [35] This whole story became most interesting – the general view was that the Malaysian government had allowed the Israeli team to participate in an attempt to soften relations and stimulate trade and so show a ‘soft’ face of Islam. Immediately after the conclusion of the tournament, however, Malaysia joined other nations at the Non-Aligned Movement meeting in New Delhi to freeze relations with Israel in protest at activities on the West Bank – New Straits Times 5 April 1997, 11 April 1997. [36] It was a matter of some moment when the Chief Minister of Johore (a former federal Sports Minister) announced that he would not take the post on the grounds that such a position was not in the best interests of either football or the Chief Minister. [37] This thinking underlay the construction of the 1997 National Sports Act which occasioned a vigorous debate between the Olympic Committee of Malaysia, the National Sports Council and the Minister for Sport. [38] Arbena Arbena, J. L. 1993. “International Aspects of Sport in Latin America: Perceptions, Prospects and Proposal?”. In The Sports Process: A Comparative and Developmental Approach, Edited by: Dunning, E., McGuire, J. and Pearton, R. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. [Google Scholar], ‘International Aspects of Sport in Latin America’. [39] Riordan Riordan, J., ed. 1978. Sport under Communism, Canberra: ANU Press. [Google Scholar] (ed.), Sport Under Communism. A more specific case study may he found in Gilbert Gilbert, D. 1980. The Miracle Machine, New York: McCann and Geoghan. [Google Scholar], The Miracle Machine, which analyzed the situation in the-then German Democratic Republic. [40] The nature of the New Zealand-South Africa connection is demonstrated in Pearson Pearson, M. N. 1979. “Heads in the Sand: The 1956 Springbok Tour to New Zealand in Perspective”. In Sport in History, Edited by: Cashman, R. and McKernan, M. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. [Google Scholar], ‘Heads In The Sand’, and Roger Roger, W. 1991. Old Heroes: The 1956 Springbok Tour and the Lives Beyond, Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton. [Google Scholar], Old Heroes. [41] The occasion was the ‘New Horizons’ series of conferences designed to enhance trade, commerce and cultural contact between the two countries. [42] For an entertaining account of Indian cricket culture, see Levine Levine, E. 1996. Into the Passionate Soul of Subcontinental Cricket, New Delhi: Penguin. [Google Scholar], Into The Passionate Soul of Subcontinental Cricket, and for a far more elaborate cultural reading, Nandy Nandy, A. 1989. The Tao of Cricket: On Games of Destiny and the Destiny of Games, New Delhi: Penguin. [Google Scholar], The Tao of Cricket. An excellent insider account is Mukherjee Mukherjee, S. 1996. Autobiography of an Unknown Cricketer, Delhi: Ravi Dayal. [Google Scholar], Autobiography of an Unknown Cricketer. [43] Personal observation. [44] The politics of Gaelic sport provide some useful examples here. Mandle Mandle, W. F. 1987. The Gaelic Athletic Association and Irish Nationalist Politics, London: IUP. [Google Scholar], The Gaelic Athletic Association and Irish Nationalist Politics. [45] One excellent ethnography which reveals the extent to which sport can rule a life is Hornby Hornby, N. 1993. Fever Pitch, London: Penguin. [Google Scholar], Fever Pitch, the story of an Arsenal Football Club supporter. [46] For some interesting background, see Phillips Phillips, J. 1987. A Man's Country: The Image of the Pakeha Male – a History, Auckland: Penguin. [Google Scholar], A Man's Country. [47] There is an interesting parallel here in the current Australian controversy about ‘capitalist’ and ‘community’ views of sport in the marketplace. The debate was ignited by Quick Quick, S. E. 1996. Paying to Win: The Business of the AFL. Bulletin of Sport and Culture, 9 [Google Scholar], ‘Paying To Win’, and quickly taken up by a variety of writers in issue 10 of the Bulletin of Sport and Culture. (March 1997). [48] Stoddart, Saturday Afternoon Fever, Ch.6. For some other views, see Vertinsky Vertinsky, P. A. 1994. The Eternally Wounded Woman, Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. [Google Scholar], ‘Gender Relations, Women's History and Sport History’. [49] For a description, Arlott Arlott, J., ed. 1977. The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games, London: Paladin. [Google Scholar] (ed.), The Oxford Companion To Sports And Games, 810–11. [50] See the film ‘Trobriand Cricket’ for an excellent account. [51] I have written about this in my chapter ‘Other Cultures’ in Stoddart and Sandiford (eds), The Imperial Game. [52] As an example, see Stoddart, ‘Cricket, Literature and Culture’ [the text version of The Barry Andrews Memorial Lecture 1992, Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra]. [53] One such story which I remember from Tiger at that time concerned a father who chained a cricket bat to his son's wrist so that the boy might never go without practice, the bat being removed only so that fielding practice could be carried out. Nowadays that would be tantamount to child abuse, another reminder of how the social context for sport alters. [54] The insights from landscape analysis come from writers such as Mitchell Mitchell, W. J. T., ed. 1994. Landscape and Power, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar], (ed.), Landscape and Power and Daniels Daniels, S. 1993. Fields of Vision: Landscape Imagery & National Identity in England and the United States, Cambridge: Polity. [Google Scholar], Fields Of Vision. For a rather bland view of the golf landscape, Adams Adams, R. L. A. 1995. “Golf”. In The Theater of Sport, Edited by: Raitz, Karl B. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. [Google Scholar], ‘Golf’. [55] Some random examples here include: Finn (1861–1901), ‘The First Tee at St George's, Sandwich, 1896’; Campbell (contemporary), ‘The 14th Green, Kings Course, Gleneagles’, Shearer (1925),‘Royal Dornoch, 1982’. [56] For an indication of the vast coverage of golf in communicable form, see the Rhod McEwan series of catalogues produced from his base in Ballater, Scotland. For further details see www.rhodmcewan.com. [57] For some works here: Crosset Crosset, T. W. 1995. Outsiders in the Clubhouse: The World of Women's Professional Golf, Buffalo: SUNY Press. [Google Scholar], Outsiders in the Clubhouse; Kahn Kahn, L. 1996. The LPGA: The Unauthorized Version of the History of the Ladies Professional Golf Association, GFP: Menlo Park, CA. [Google Scholar], The LPGA; Bamberger Bamberger, M. 1996. “Living with a Lie (from Sports Illustrated)”. In The Best American Sports Writing 1996, Edited by: Feinstein, J. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [Google Scholar], ‘Living with a Lie’. [58] Some excellent work in this area has been that done by Margaret Carlisle Duncan Duncan, M. C. 1994. The Politics of Women's Body Images and Practices: Foucault, the Panopticon and Shape Magazine. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 18(1)[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], as in ‘The Politics of Women's Body Images and Practices’. See, too, Vertinsky Vertinsky, P. A. 1994. Gender Relations, Women's History and Sport History. Journal of Sport History, 10(1) [Google Scholar], The Eternally Wounded Woman. [59] Barthes Barthes, R. 1973. Mythologies, London: Paladin. [Google Scholar] in his Mythologies and Geertz Geertz, C. 1972. Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight. Daedalus, 101[PubMed] , [Google Scholar], ‘Deep Play’. [60] For some background, see Whannel Whannel, G. 1992. Fields of Vision: Television Sport and Cultural Transformation, London: Routledge. [Google Scholar], Fields of Vision; Wenner Wenner, L. A., ed. 1989. Media, Sport, and Society, Newbury Park: Sage. [Google Scholar] (ed.), Media Sport and Society; Barnett Barnett, S. 1991. Games and Sets: The Changing Face of Sport on Television, London: BFI. [Google Scholar], Games and Sets. [61] See, for example: Trevelyan and Jackson Trevelyan, M. J. and Jackson, S. J. 1995. “Clash of the Codes: A Comparative Analysis of Media Representations of Violence in Rugby Union and Rugby League”. In Sport, Power and Society in New Zealand: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Edited by: Nauright, J. Sydney: ASSH Studies in Sports History no.11. [Google Scholar], ‘Clash of the Codes’. [62] A sample of such works: Brohm Brohm, J-M. 1978. Sport: A Prison of Measured Time, London: Ink Links. [Google Scholar], Sport; Hoberman Hoberman, J. 1984. Sport and Ideology, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. [Google Scholar], Sport and Ideology; Gruneau Gruneau, R. 1993. “The Critique of Sport in Modernity”. In The Sports Process: A Comparative and Developmental Approach, Edited by: Dunning, E. Champaign, IL: HKP. [Google Scholar], Sports, Class, and Social Development; Hargreaves Hargreaves, J. 1986. Sport, Power, and Culture, New York: St. Martins Press. [Google Scholar], Sport, Power and Culture. [63] I argued this in a paper delivered in 1993 to a joint North American Association for Sport History/Australian Society for Sports History meeting in Hawaii.