Abstract
Theories on the aetiology of depression in humans are intimately linked to animal research on stressor controllability effects. However, explicit translations of established animal designs are lacking. In two consecutive studies, we developed a translational paradigm to study stressor controllability effects in humans. In the first study, we compared three groups of participants, one exposed to escapable stress, one yoked inescapable stress group, and a control group not exposed to stress. Although group differences indicated successful stress induction, the manipulation failed to differentiate groups according to controllability. In the second study, we employed an improved paradigm and contrasted only an escapable stress group to a yoked inescapable stress group. The final design successfully induced differential effects on self-reported perceived control, exhaustion, helplessness, and behavioural indices of adaptation to stress. The latter were examined in a new escape behaviour test which was modelled after the classic shuttle box animal paradigm. Contrary to the learned helplessness literature, exposure to uncontrollable stress led to more activity and exploration; however, these behaviours were ultimately not adaptive. We discuss the results and possible applications in light of the findings on learning and agency beliefs, inter-individual differences, and interventions aimed at improving resilience to stress-induced mental dysfunction.
Highlights
“Don’t stress over what you can’t control.”—a common piece of advice that seems easier said than done
There was an effect of time (F(3, 222) = 3.47, p < 0.05, partial η2 = 0.04 (Greenhouse–Geisser corrected, ε = 0.63)), reflecting a slight decrease in perceived control across trials
There was a significant effect of time on controllability ratings, indicating a decrease over trials (F(3, 288) = 6.70, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.07 (Greenhouse–Geisser corrected, ε = 0.84))
Summary
“Don’t stress over what you can’t control.”—a common piece of advice that seems easier said than done. Thornton and Jacobs [14] employed electric shocks to induce differential effects of stressor controllability These early translations stayed close to the animal triadic design, focusing on proper yoking and even incorporating a test akin to the shuttle box. Diener and colleagues [17] employed a forewarned design, i.e., participants in the controllable stress group were able to completely avoid stressful stimulation which led to imperfect yoking between conditions This lack of standardised procedures hampers ongoing efforts to fully characterise the mechanistic underpinnings of how stressor controllability modulates our response to stress and its consequences on behaviour, affect, and cognition. Broader analyses of stressor controllability effects in humans appear useful in strengthening translational approaches To this end, we sought to fill the gap in translational studies using a paradigm which more closely translates the established triadic animal design and which provides a feasible means to investigate
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