Abstract

Magnetic fields have attracted considerable attention in indoor localization due to their ubiquitous and infrastructure-free characteristics. This survey provides a comprehensive review of magnetic-field-based indoor localization methods. We first introduce characteristics of the magnetic field, its advantages, and its challenges. We then describe the magnetometer model and the effect of ferromagnetic interference. We also present coordinate systems commonly used for magnetic field localization and describe their transformation relationships. We then compare the existing publicly available magnetic field benchmark datasets, present magnetometer calibration algorithms, and show how efficiently magnetic field maps can be built. We also summarize state-of-the-art magnetic field localization methods (e.g., magnetic landmarks, dynamic time warping, magnetic fingerprinting, filters, simultaneous localization and mapping, and neural network). The smartphone-based pedestrian dead reckoning approach is also reviewed.

Highlights

  • The global indoor positioning market size is expected to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate of 22.5% from USD 6.1 billion in 2020 to USD 17 billion by 2025

  • This review aims to provide a comprehensive awareness of magnetic fingerprintingbased localization techniques used in indoor environments

  • Several coordinate systems commonly used for magnetic field localization were presented, and their transformation relationships were described

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Summary

Introduction

The global indoor positioning market size is expected to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate of 22.5% from USD 6.1 billion in 2020 to USD 17 billion by 2025. While GNSS is challenging to meet indoor positioning requirements due to signal attenuation and obstacles, many alternative technologies and devices are used for indoor positioning, such as WiFi [2], Bluetooth [3,4], ultrasound or sound [5,6], visible light [7,8], and magnetic field [9,10] These indoor positioning technologies can obtain accurate location information and provide consumers with reliable location-based services and information. There are few surveys dedicated to magnetic field indoor localization technologies that focus on the challenges and advancement of geomagnetism-based indoor localization for smartphones [10,17] and the magnetic field matching algorithms [18]. An overview of the advantages and challenges of magnetic-field-based indoor localization; This survey is structured as follows: Section 2 introduces the characteristics of a geomagnetic field and presents the advantage and challenges of using magnetic fields for localization.

Overview of the Geomagnetic Field
Geomagnetic Field Characteristics
Advantages of Using Magnetic Field Measurement
Challenges of Using Magnetic Field Measurement
Magnetometer Measurement Model
Coordinate Systems and Transformations
Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed
Geodetic Coordinate System
Local East-North-Up Coordinate System
Smartphone Coordinate System
Nine-DOF Sensor Coordinate System
Magnetometer Calibration
Magnetic Field Map Construction
Traditional Map Survey
Crowdsourcing Approaches
Mapping with Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
Geomagnetic Field Interpolation
Indoor Localization Methods Using Magnetic Fingerprints
Magnetic Landmark
Dynamic Time Warping
Machine Learning Approaches
Filter-Based Approaches
Finish
Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
Neural Networks MF-Based Methods
Smartphone-Based Pedestrian Dead Reckoning
Step Detection
Threshold
Peak Detection
Zero-crossing
Auto-correlation
Step Length Estimation
Step Direction Estimation
Hybrid Localization
10.1. Comparison of Different Indoor Positioning Techniques
10.2. Commercial Applications of Indoor Positioning Technology
10.3. Challenges for Magnetic Field Based Localization
Constructing magnetic map
Complex user behavior
Energy efficiency
Applying cross-domain techniques
Findings
11. Conclusions

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