Abstract
Changes in United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) policy during the 1980’s led to the increased use of whole effluent toxicity testing, or “biomonitoring,” for the monitoring and regulation of effluent discharges to surface waters (Mount and Norberg, 1984; Norberg and Mount, 1985; USEPA, 1985; USEPA, 1987; Federal Register, 1989; USEPA, 1989; USEPA, 1991). More recently, many states and USEPA regions have indicated that surface discharges of co-produced waters from conventional, coalbed, or other types of natural gas facilities are subject to biomonitoring requirements. Produced water generally has high salinity relative to most fresh waters. We define salinity as the concentration of major inorganic ions (e.g., sodium, chloride, potassium). While not considered as traditional toxicants, these inorganic ions can be toxic to freshwater organisms (O’Neil et al., 1992), particularly the organisms commonly used for biomonitoring. As such, understanding the relationship between major inorganic ions and toxicity is important to properly managing the disposal of production waters.
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