Abstract
The rapid growth, demand, and production of batteries to meet various emerging applications, such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems, will result in waste and disposal problems in the next few years as these batteries reach end-of-life. Battery reuse and recycling are becoming urgent worldwide priorities to protect the environment and address the increasing need for critical metals. As a review article, this paper reveals the current global battery market and global battery waste status from which the main battery chemistry types and their management, including reuse and recycling status, are discussed. This review then presents details of the challenges, opportunities, and arguments on battery second-life and recycling. The recent research and industrial activities in the battery reuse domain are summarized to provide a landscape picture and valuable insight into battery reuse and recycling for industries, scientific research, and waste management.
Highlights
The rapid growth, demand, and production of batteries to meet various emerging applications, such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems, will result in waste and disposal problems in the few years as these batteries reach end-of-life
Of the different types of secondary batteries, lead-acid and lithium ion are the top two battery chemistry types that occupy most of the rechargeable battery market with nickel-based batteries supplying only about 4% of the market
Because of the toxicity of cadmium and regulations associated with its use, Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries slowly diminish in the battery market
Summary
Battery technology is ubiquitous in modern life, from portable electronics through to transportation and grid scale energy storage. A batteries spent EV lithium-ion typically ing capacity for amount alternative applications beforebefore ending up battery in waste contains thebattery initial capacity energy [11,12] The current discussion around battery reuse and recycling have been met with differing opinions, a significant number of these are around changing battery chemistries [23,24,25,26,27], geographical location [28], economic [24,29,30,31,32,33,34,35], environmental [36,37], and governmental regulations [33], materials security [38], safety and waste management regulations [39], societal benefits and globally as we transition from a linear to Circular Economy [7]. This paper summarizes the primary challenges around regulations that complicate the smooth transition to a closed-loop lithium ion battery economy that considers the three “R’s,” reduce, reuse, and recycle, principles
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