Abstract
Over the years, new synthesis routes of the cathode electrochemical active material for lithium-ion batteries have improved remarkably to optimize their capacity and cycle life performance. This review study focused on the use of some techniques to synthesize the common cathode materials (LiCoO2, LiMn2O4, LiFePO4). The most common and simplest synthesis method was the mixing of powders in their solid-state form and heating them at relatively high temperatures over long periods. Other methods included the formation of sol-gel products that could be either heat-treated more or could be used directly by means of a spray pyrolysis method producing the desired active material. The spray pyrolysis method showed that suitable cathode oxide materials formed in shorter periods, resulting in small homogenous particles with narrow particle size distribution. The spray pyrolysis method allowed for making doped or coated cathode materials easily of the various base forms LiCoO2, LiMn2O4 and LiFePO4, with doping elements such as Zr, Mn, Ni, Co, B or Mg. Coating of the particles could also be done with materials such as glassy lithium boride oxide, TiO2 or carbon. These additives to the cathode material improved the active material's physical morphology and electrochemical properties.
Highlights
Petroleum refining, electroplating, chrome mining, leather tanning, paint and pigments manufacturing industrial activities may generate chromium waste.[1]
It was concluded that the Macadamia activated carbon (MAC) had physico-chemical properties that are characteristic of activated carbons (ACs) derived from plant materials.[19]
Functionalized AC derived from Macadamia nutshells
Summary
Petroleum refining, electroplating, chrome mining, leather tanning, paint and pigments manufacturing industrial activities may generate chromium waste.[1]. Chromium may exhibit different oxidation states ranging from +2 to +6, but the trivalent (Cr(III)) and hexavalent (Cr(VI)) oxidation states are the most prevalent. These forms of chromium have different mobilities and levels of toxicity in aqueous environment.[5] Cr(III) is 500 times less toxic than Cr(VI).[4] On the contrary, while the United States Environmental Protection Agency has classified Cr(VI) as a group A carcinogen because of its chronic effects,[6] Cr(III) is a micronutrient needed for biological processes.[7] both forms are toxic at high concentrations. Cancer of the digestive tract and lungs are some of the diseases known to emanate from prolonged exposure to hexavalent chromium compounds[8] as well as nausea, vomiting and epigastric pain.[9]
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