A Review of the Fossil Record of New Zealand Lizards

A synopsis of the Early Miocene St Bathans Fauna of New Zealand

While known for over a decade to exist, fossil rails of the early Miocene (19–16 Ma) St Bathans Fauna, from the South Island of New Zealand, have not previously been described taxonomically or studied in detail. Here we use qualitative osteological features and analyse measurements from wing and leg bones to determine the number of taxa represented, their flight ability, and the presence and nature of sexual dimorphism within the identified taxa. We describe two new rail species in monospecific genera from the St Bathans Fauna: Priscaweka parvales gen. et sp. nov., which is extremely common, and Litorallus livezeyi gen. et sp. nov., a distinctly larger, uncommon species. Priscaweka parvales exhibited a significant degree of sexual dimorphism and was tiny, being the size of the extinct Chatham Island Rail Cabalus modestus. Both newly described species exhibit skeletal proportions and osteological features that indicate they had reduced wings and were flightless. These observations reveal that flightless rallid species have been present in New Zealand for millions of years. The distinctiveness of the St Bathans rails from their closest geographical and chronological neighbours suggests some hidden diversity of volant rails in Australia's fossil record. However, the combined data from Australasian and European records reveal no evidence for a diverse early Miocene crown rallid fauna as predicted by some molecular studies. A subsequent, middle Miocene radiation for crown rallids seems more likely, and appears to have produced the high taxonomic diversity seen in Holocene Australasian rail faunas.http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:9F638A1E-C17D-4A85-9D6E-3D0F24D5AE1E

The New Zealand (NZ) lizard fossil record is currently limited to late Quaternary remains of modern taxa. The St Bathans Fauna (early Miocene, southern South Island) extends this record to 19-16 million years ago (Myr ago). Skull and postcranial elements are similar to extant Oligosoma (Lygosominae) skinks and Hoplodactylus (Diplodactylinae) geckos. There is no evidence of other squamate groups. These fossils, along with coeval sphenodontines, demonstrate a long conservative history for the NZ lepidosaurian fauna, provide new molecular clock calibrations and contradict inferences of a very recent (less than 8 Myr ago) arrival of skinks in NZ.

The largest extant New Zealand gecko, Hoplodactylus duvaucelii (Duvaucel's Gecko), is a nocturnal, viviparous species of conservation concern. Hoplodactylus duvaucelii, once widespread throughout New Zealand, is now confined to offshore islands, the majority of which are free from all introduced mammalian predators (mice, rats, cats, mustelids, brushtail possums). A single H. duvaucelii, caught within a fenced reserve on North Island in 2010 was genotyped to determine whether it represents a recent introduction or a previously unknown native relict population. Genotypes from seven nuclear loci and a minimum spanning network of mtDNA haplotypes revealed two clusters representing southern (Cook Strait) and northern island populations. This genetic structure is concordant with variation between these two groups observed in body size, color pattern, and scalation. The mainland specimen was found to possess a mixture of morphological character states typical of northern and southern island populations...

A large fossil passerine (Aves, Artamidae, Cracticinae, Miostrepera canora gen. et sp. nov.), of Early Miocene (19–16 Ma) age, is described based on a proximal and a distal humerus from the lower Bannockburn Formation near St Bathans in Otago, New Zealand. Referred material includes a previously reported scapula and, tentatively so, a distal tibiotarsus. This taxon is the largest passerine in the St Bathans Fauna, in which the total passerine diversity may include up to 17 species. The only other named passerine in this fauna is a tiny acanthisittid wren, Kuiornis indicator. Cracticines (currawongs, magpies and butcherbirds) were absent in the native avifauna of New Zealand during the late Quaternary but are represented by the introduced Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen now. The group is widespread in Australia with a fossil record extending to the Early Miocene. The presence of a Strepera-like cracticine in the Early Miocene in New Zealand indicates overwater dispersal to and colonisation of Zealandia from Australia that we suggest was facilitated by the diverse flora in the subtropical environments of Zealandia at the time. The subsequent loss of cracticines from the Zealandian avifauna is correlated with the marked loss in floral diversity following the climate cooling in the Middle Miocene and during the subsequent Pleistocene glacial oscillations. Furthermore, we show that the osteological correlates of the origin of musculus humerotriceps pars dorsalis are shown to be more complex than presence or absence of a dorsal fossa on the humerus.

Differences in harm from legal BZP/TFMPP party pills between North Island and South Island users in New Zealand: A case of effective industry self-regulation?

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. (Californian, Canada, or creeping thistle) is an exotic perennial herb indigenous to Eurasia that successfully established in New Zealand (NZ) approximately 130 years ago. Presently, C. arvense is considered one of the worst invasive weeds in NZ arable and pastoral productions systems. A mechanism commonly invoked to explain the apparent increased vigour of introduced weeds is release from natural enemies. The enemy-release hypothesis (ERH) predicts that plants in an introduced range should experience reduced herbivory, particularly from specialists, and that release from this natural enemy pressure facilitates increased plant performance in the introduced range. In 2007, surveys were carried out in 13 populations in NZ (7 in the North Island and 6 in the South Island) and in 12 populations in central Europe to quantify and compare growth characteristics of C. arvense in its native versus introduced range. Altitude and mean annual precipitation for each population were used as covariates in an attempt to explain differences or similarities in plant traits among ranges. All plant traits varied significantly among populations within a range. Shoot dry weight was greater in the South Island compared to Europe, which is in line with the prediction of increased plant performance in the introduced range; however, this was explained by environmental conditions. Contrary to expectations, the North Island was not different from Europe for all plant traits measured, and after adjustment for covariates showed decreased shoot density and dry weight compared to the native range. Therefore, environmental factors appear to be more favourable for growth of C. arvense in both the North and South Islands. In accordance with the ERH, there was significantly greater endophagous herbivory in the capitula and stems of shoots in Europe compared to both NZ ranges. In NZ, capitulum attack from Rhinocyllus conicus was found only in the North Island, and no stem-mining attack was found anywhere in NZ. Thus, although C. arvense experiences significantly reduced natural enemy pressure in both the North and South Islands of NZ there is no evidence that it benefits from this enemy release.

One of the most distinctive group of birds is the ratites, a group that includes the Ostrich (Struthio camelus), rheas (Rhea spp.), cassowaries (Casuarius spp.), Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), kiwis (Apteryx spp.), and possibly tinamous (Tinamidae) among living birds, and elephant birds (Aepyornithidae) and moas (Dinornithidae) among extinct species. At various times this group was considered to be natural (i.e. monophyletic), and at other times the result of convergence on large size and flightlessness (i.e. polyphyletic). Recent work on the biochemical taxonomy of ratites (Sibley et al. 1988, Cooper et. al. 1992) favors a monophyletic origin and places them, including tinamous, in the Parvclass Ratitae. The position of the tinamous, however, is such that they may be considered a sister taxon to a more narrowly defined group of ratites (Cracraft 1974). Although most ratites (sensu stricto) are large (> 20 kg) and have omnivorous to vegetarian diets, kiwis (Apterygidae) are characterized by a mass of 1 to 4 kg and by feeding principally on soil invertebrates. Kiwis are collectively confined in distribution to the three major islands of New Zealand and are an autochthonous element of New Zealand's fauna. Robertson (1985) has summarized the contemporary distribution of kiwis in New Zealand. The Brown Kiwi (Apteryx australis) is found on North, South, and Stewart islands. The Little Spotted Kiwi (A. owenii) was found in the mountains of North Island, as well as on South Island, but today is limited to Fjordland on South Island and to some offshore island refuges (such as Kapiti Island) to which it was transported. The Great Spotted Kiwi (A. haastii) is limited to western and northwestern regions of South Island. The unique origin and distinctive habits of ratites make them worthy of extensive study, but because of their large size and distribution in the Southern Hemisphere, they have been the subject of few studies, especially in terms of experimental biology. Furthermore, few kiwis are held in captivity outside New Zealand. Therefore, few data are available on kiwi physiology. They include Farner's (1956) measure-

Swiss needle cast is a foliar disease of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) that results in premature foliage loss and reduced growth. The causal fungus, Nothophaeocryptopus gaeumannii, was first detected in New Zealand in 1959 and spread throughout the North and South Islands over the following decades. The contemporary genetic structure of the N. gaeumannii population in New Zealand was assessed by analyzing 468 multilocus SSR genotypes (MLGs) from 2,085 N. gaeumannii isolates collected from 32 sites in the North and South Islands. Overall diversity was lower than that reported from native N. gaeumannii populations in the northwestern United States, which was expected given that N. gaeumannii is introduced in New Zealand. Linkage disequilibrium was significantly higher than expected under random mating, suggesting that population structure is clonal. Populations of N. gaeumannii in the North and South Islands were weakly differentiated, and the isolates collected from sites within the islands were moderately differentiated. This suggests that gene flow has occurred between the N. gaeumannii populations in the North and South Islands, and between the local N. gaeumannii populations within each island. Eighteen isolates of N. gaeumannii Lineage 2, which has previously been reported only from western Oregon, were recovered from two sites in the North Island and four sites in the South Island. The most likely explanation for the contemporary distribution of N. gaeumannii in New Zealand is that it was introduced on infected live seedlings through the forestry or ornamental nursery trade, as the fungus is neither seed borne nor saprobic, and the observed population structure is not consistent with a stochastic intercontinental dispersal event.

A large fossil anserine-like anatid (Aves, Anatidae, Notochen bannockburnensis gen. et sp. nov.) is described based on a distal humerus from the lower Bannockburn Formation, early Miocene (1916 Ma), St Bathans Fauna from New Zealand. Its morphology and size suggest that this taxon represents an early swan rather than a goose. Extant anserines are split into Northern and Southern Hemisphere clades. The St Bathans Fauna is known to have the oldest anserines in the Southern Hemisphere, unnamed cereopsines perhaps ancestral to species of Cnemiornis (New Zealand geese). The elongate and flat morphology of the tuberculum supracondylare ventrale of the new species, however, preclude affinities with cereopsines. It is a rare taxon and the eighth anatid represented in the fauna and is the largest known anseriform from the Oligo-Miocene of Australasia. We also reassess other large anatid specimens from the St Bathans Fauna and identify Miotadorna catrionae Tennyson, Greer, Lubbe, Marx, Richards, Giovanardi Rawlence, 2022 as a junior synonym of Miotadorna sanctibathansi Worthy, Tennyson, Jones, McNamara Douglas, 2007.

Spatial comparisons of carbon sequestration for redwood and radiata pine within New Zealand

New Zealand has a diverse lizard fauna, comprising diplodactylid geckos and skinks and over 100 recognised species or taxa. Geckos are thought to have colonised New Zealand during the Eocene or Oligocene (40.2–24.4 mya), prior to the ‘Oligocene drowning’ event. In contrast, skinks reached New Zealand during the Miocene (~18.3 mya) via long-distance overwater dispersal from New Caledonia along the Lord Howe Rise and Norfolk Ridge. Investigations of the biogeography of New Zealand lizards have long been hampered by two key factors: recent range contractions and local extinctions following the successful establishment of 31 exotic mammalian species and taxonomic gaps and a limited grasp on the true diversity of the endemic lizard fauna. However, subfossil records have improved our understanding of the prehuman distributions of several previously widespread species, and intensive taxonomic activity over the last two decades has provided a more accurate estimate of lizard diversity. This enhanced knowledge has enabled the key historical processes responsible for the diversification of lizards within New Zealand to be identified. These include sea-level changes during the Pliocene–Pleistocene in northern New Zealand, the Pliocene marine inundation of the lower North Island, the impact of water barriers such as Cook Strait (separating the North and South Islands) and Foveaux Strait (separating the South Island and Stewart island), tectonic activity along the Alpine Fault and regional north–south differentiation within the South Island. We provide an updated list of 22 biogeographic categories for New Zealand lizards. We highlight that the essential framework is now in place with which to investigate the biogeographic patterns evident in the New Zealand lizard fauna and examine the processes that have created them.

Analysis of Variance Through Examples

A new species of Manuherikia (Aves: Anatidae) provides evidence of faunal turnover in the St Bathans Fauna, New Zealand

A member of the New Zealand endemic family (Aves: Aptornithidae) is described from the Early Miocene St Bathans Fauna of Central Otago, South Island, New Zealand. The new species, based on two thoracic vertebrae, is provisionally referred to the highly distinctive Late Pleistocene–Holocene extinct genus Aptornis Mantell, 1848 (in Quart J Geol Soc Lond 4:225–238, 1848). It differs from both Recent species by slightly smaller size, greater pneumaticity of the corpus vertebrae and differences of the processus spinosus and processus transversi. We refer a distal femur, another vertebral fragment, a phalange and tentatively a tibial fragment, also from the St Bathans Fauna, to this new taxon.