A Review of Subsidence Monitoring Techniques in Offshore Environments.

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In view of the ever-increasing global energy demands and the imperative for sustainability in extraction methods, this article surveys subsidence monitoring systems applied to oil and gas fields located in offshore areas. Subsidence is an issue that can harm infrastructure, whether onshore or especially offshore, so it must be carefully monitored to ensure safety and prevent potential environmental damage. A comprehensive review of major monitoring technologies used offshore is still lacking; here, we address this gap by evaluating several techniques, including InSAR, GNSSs, hydrostatic leveling, and fiber optic cables, among others. Their accuracy, applicability, and limitations within offshore operations have also been assessed. Based on an extensive literature review of more than 60 published papers and technical reports, we have found that no single method works best for all settings; instead, a combination of different monitoring approaches is more likely to provide a reliable subsidence assessment. We also present selected case histories to document the results achieved using integrated monitoring studies. With the emerging offshore energy industry, combining GNSSs, InSAR, and other subsidence monitoring technologies offers a pathway to achieving precision in the assessment of offshore infrastructural stability, thus underpinning the sustainability and safety of offshore oil and gas operations. Reliable and comprehensive subsidence monitoring systems are essential for safety, to protect the environment, and ensure the sustainable exploitation of hydrocarbon resources.