A review of shark conservation and management legal frameworks in the Philippines

<p><em>A literature review has been carried out to determine international and national legal frameworks regarding international transportation of nuclear and radioactive materials through the Lombok Strait in Indonesia. </em><em>The </em><em>Lombok Strait is one of the Indonesian Archipelagic Sea Lanes which has been regulated both in the national and international legal frameworks as a pathway between two oceans that passes through Indonesian waters. Transportation of goods by ship is passage of innocent as stated in Sea Law Convention. However, due to nuclear and radioactive materials are not ordinary goods, the safety and security of nuclear and radioactive materials should be ensured. The paper examines Indonesian national laws on nuclear and radioactive materials transport through Lombok Strait. Review results that a</em><em>part from the carrier should comply with national and international legal frameworks, coordination between governmental agencies in Indonesia including local governments plays an important role in the innocent passage through the Lombok Strait. Finally, ensuring nuclear and radioactive materials transports are safe and secure in the context of international shipment is a necessity to ensure safety and security for workers, public and the environment.</em><em></em></p><p><strong><em>Keyword</em></strong><strong><em>s</em></strong><strong><em>:</em></strong><em> </em><em>Lombok Strait; nuclear; transport.</em><strong><em></em></strong></p>

Digital transformation and the COVID-19 pandemic have caused a paradigm shift in work; hybrid work arrangements that combine remote and in-office work are becoming the norm in many business organizations worldwide. Employees benefit from the flexible working arrangements that the hybrid work offers, but they often navigate in uncertainty in terms of legal protection and contractual arrangements, even in the EU (European Union). WB (Western Balkan) countries have embraced hybrid work with a constant effort to align their policy and legal framework to the EU standards, as pressing requisites of EU integration aspirations. This study aims to explore the readiness of WB countries’ national legal and policy frameworks to regulate hybrid work through mapping and analyzing the dimensions of hybrid work in national legal and policy frameworks through a comparative legal and policy analysis. Results reveal that in the majority of the legal frameworks of WB countries, there is no specific definition of hybrid work, and legal arrangements on homework or telework can be found in the legal frameworks of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. Employees’ working conditions, work-life balance, gender aspect, and well-being are not fully addressed. Policy instruments remain underdeveloped, with Serbia being the only country with significant labor reform progress. National legal frameworks need further harmonization, whereas national policies need to tailor proper policy instruments that address hybrid work. Received: 17 January 2026 / Revised: 24 February 2026 / Accepted: 7 March 2026 / Published: 25 March 2026

ABSTRACTThis article analyzes how indigenous peoples actively engage in the negotiation of international, national and local legal frameworks in Guatemala. The aim of the article is to explain paradoxical outcomes of global legal pluralism through an actor-oriented approach to the construction of legal frameworks and the meaning of rights. It does so by means of a case study of the dissolution of an indigenous social institution: the cargo system. The case study involves a multiplicity of power relations. It is argued that these power relations enable an understanding of the different ways in which local actors engage in processes of constructing legal frameworks ‘on the ground’. This article will provide insight into how new legal frameworks constitute social realities. In addition, it will show how personal identifications and experiences are translated into legal practices. Finally, the case study reveals how the struggle for rights both reflects and produces tensions among ethnic, national, social economic and religious identities.

This article examines the role of international, national, and local legal frameworks in shaping digital volunteer management. It analyzes critical dimensions including data protection, labor law, intellectual property rights, cybersecurity, taxation, and fundraising regulation. Drawing on case studies from the European Union, United States, India, Kenya, and Brazil, it highlights the diverse legal obligations non-profits face when mobilizing digital volunteers. The discussion underscores the importance of proactive strategies such as legal training, expert consultation, record-keeping, and technology-enabled compliance to sustain credibility and build resilience. By situating legal frameworks at the center of digital volunteer management, the article provides practical guidance for both academics and practitioners.

The increase in cybercrime in Indonesia, such as data theft, ransomware attacks, and the misuse of artificial intelligence (AI), shows that the national legal framework is not yet fully effective in dealing with the dynamics of the digital era. Although Indonesia has the Electronic Information and Transaction Law (EIT Law) and the Personal Data Protection Law (PDP Law), both still have various weaknesses, including ambiguous norms, weak harmonization between regulations, and limited capacity of law enforcement officials. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effectiveness of the national cyber legal framework in responding to developments in digital technology, identify the main challenges in its enforcement, and formulate the direction of legal reform policies needed to make Indonesia's legal system more adaptive, effective, and responsive to technological developments, particularly in regulations concerning artificial intelligence that guarantee the principles of accountability, transparency, and justice. This study uses a normative juridical method, which is legal research based on literature studies by examining written legal materials. Data was obtained from primary legal materials in the form of laws and regulations related to cyber law, including Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions and its amendments, Law Number 27 of 2022 concerning Personal Data Protection, the Draft Law on Cyber Security and Resilience (RUU KKS), and other related regulations. Secondary legal materials include literature, research results, scientific journal articles, and reports from relevant institutions from a national and international comparative perspective. The analysis was conducted using qualitative normative methods with an emphasis on legal interpretation, consistency of norms, and the relevance of regulations to the needs of cyber law reform in Indonesia. The results of the study indicate that cyber law reform is necessary to establish a legal system that is adaptive and responsive to technological developments. These efforts include accelerating the ratification of the KKS Bill, harmonizing regulations, increasing the capacity of law enforcement officials, and strengthening public digital literacy in order to strengthen national resilience in cyberspace and protect the digital rights of citizens. Keywords: Accountability; Artificial Intelligence; Cyber Law; Legal Reform; Transparency.

Located between two continents and two oceans, Indonesia is vulnerable to various transnational crimes. Hence, the concept of maritime security emerged. This paper focuses on three crucial matters, maritime delimitation, IUU Fishing as well as piracy and armed robbery at sea. This research aims to analyze the urgency of national maritime security legal framework in Indonesia. This research uses normative method with statute approach and comparative approach. It is submitted that although regional dan international cooperation is important to address maritime threats, national legal instrument is also necessary. Unfortunately, Indonesia still does not have comprehensive national legal instrument in place. Thus, it is argued that Indonesia should formulate specific policy and national legal frameworks in addressing maritime threats completed with certain measures for each threats as well as point out which institutions competent in handling each threats.

This article critically examines the insufficient integration of cultural heritage protection in legal frameworks governing climate-induced displacement, using the Carteret Islanders of Papua New Guinea as a case study. Current legal systems prioritize the economic and physical aspects of displacement but neglect the cultural and psychological dimensions, leading to the erosion of cultural heritage. This article identifies critical gaps by analyzing international, national, and local legal frameworks and proposes a new legal paradigm incorporating cultural heritage preservation into climate displacement law. The paper concludes with actionable legal reforms that ensure displaced communities' physical relocation and cultural survival.

Violence against women is a phenomenon we encounter on a daily basis and which is present in all areas and all cultures and social systems, through time. The most severe form of violence against women is femicide, as a gender-based murder of a woman by a man who thinks he has a right to take her life. Femicide is therefore a crime that discriminates. Since this phenomenon is still rarely object of scientific research, the author of this article wants to give contribution to the further study and recognition of femicide as an urgent social problem, his understanding and adequate response through the legal systems of the countries.
 The author puts focus of discussion in this paper, on the issue of femicide, starting with the analisys of the phenomenon of violence against women, meaning of this notion, its forms, and the International, European and national legal framework. While in conclusion, author explicates confirmation of hypotheses that there is an inadequate legal framework for the prevention of femicide, as a serious social problem in international, European and national legal framework, both directly through the criminalization and punishment of the perpetrator of this crime, as well as taking other measures aimed at prevention and protection of women against this form of violence.

Over the centuries, philosophers and scholars have debated and explored what drives inequity and fragmentation and their implications for justice and societal well-being. More recently, the introduction and codification of international and national legal frameworks has advanced universal rights and welfare. Research has also made an unambiguous, pragmatic case for equity and inclusion, underlining the benefits of inclusion as well as the risks attendant in exclusion. This chapter discusses philosophical foundations, scholarly analyses, and theories; the international legal framework; research showing how diverse societies benefit from varied perspectives and expertise; links between economic inclusion, on one hand, and growth and development, on the other; how exclusion results in underdevelopment, persistent pockets of poverty, economic underperformance, and disparities in income; and the implications of grievance for intractable conflict and unrelenting violence.

Much has already been written on this most recent EVD outbreak—evaluating and dissecting the contributions and failings of the various role-players involved, and considering what can be done differently in future. This article will contribute to this important and ongoing debate and will specifically focus on the international, operational, and national legal frameworks in terms of which large-scale health crises like that of Ebola play out. It will be argued that the very culture and architecture of this transnational legal and operational framework for public health emergencies is isolated from the national realities in which it operates and merely offers a hierarchical authority of what legally ought to be done, with little regard to what is actually necessary and possible on the ground. In considering the most recent Ebola outbreak, and juxtaposing it with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (“SARS”) outbreak of 2003, it will be shown that a more nuanced transnational legal understanding of public health emergencies is indeed needed—a holistic approach that goes beyond biomedical/scientific and legalistic confines in dealing with disease outbreak and control. It is again important to emphasise here, for the sake of clarity, that this article is exclusively focused on the transnational legal and operational framework in which public health emergencies play out. International humanitarian responses, general public health considerations, as well as other national systemic considerations—like those relating to health systems—although important, will not be considered here. A brief interlude on the methodology of this article also deserves a place here. As already indicated above, much literature exists on the Ebola outbreak, and with the attention now shifting to the Zika virus, it is important to further distinguish the contribution of this article. This article utilises a primarily transdisciplinary lens in narrating the rise and fall of two notable epidemics of the modern world. A variety of sources, from different disciplines and bases, are used in presenting an easily accessible text that recounts key themes of both epidemics—highlighting similarities and differences, and raising important questions for the future. As with most narrative research methodologies, reliance is also placed on newspaper articles in constructing an account of how the two epidemics played out, each in its own particular time and space. The disease narrative ultimately presented in this article, therefore simultaneously serve as a chronicle of the two epidemics, while also reflecting why a more nuanced transnational legal understanding of public health emergencies is indeed needed. To facilitate this discussion and analysis, the content of this article is divided into four parts. First, in Part II, the lifecycle of two epidemics will be considered, Ebola, and the 2003 SARS outbreak. Considering these two outbreaks and the international legal responses thereto provides a valuable lens through which the multiple layers of disease outbreaks and control from the past to the present can be observed. In Part III, this paper provides an overview of the international legal and operational framework for public health emergencies, confined to references and examples from the two outbreaks selected for and discussed in Part II. Part IV considers the national legal responses of those countries most affected by the recent Ebola outbreak and the 2003 SARS outbreak. Part V discusses the question of whether to quarantine or not. Part VI discusses lessons to be learned, and why knowledge production beyond disciplinary confines is necessary. And finally, Part VII of this article concludes with a critical analysis of two observed failings of the current international legal and operational framework for public health emergencies. In considering the shortcomings of the current framework it will be argued that a more holistic approach to disease control is required that looks beyond disciplinary confines.

More than a decade has passed since the Convention for Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) first alerted the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the urgent need to establish programs for collecting biological and trade data and for managing the impacts of fishing on shark populations.By 2000, FAO had developed the International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) to form part of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.Under the IPOA-Sharks, each of more than 80 signatory nations is obliged to develop and implement a National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks, where the term 'shark' covers all chondrichthyan groups (sharks, batoids, and holocephalans) (Anon. 2000).The IPOA-Sharks emphasises that the harvest of chondrichthyan fishes should be biologically sustainable, economically rational, utilising all body parts of the sharks killed, and managed to ensure biodiversity conservation and maintenance of ecosystem structure and function.However, despite the best intentions for better management by many nations, fishing for these species continues to increase in response to the evergrowing demand for shark meat and other products from these animals.Shark fins, for example, are among the most highly priced fisheries products in eastern Asia and this is stimulating the targeting of sharks and retention of only their fins, the practice known as 'finning'.Direct fishing mortality is not the only impact on chondrichthyan populations.There are fishing impacts on habitats through disturbance of biotic communities and substrates.Shipping and underwater exploration, construction, mining, and electrical installation also affect habitats, and increasing ambient sound, light, electromagnetic fields, and chemical contamination stimulate the sensory systems of chondrichthyan fishes.Understanding and measuring responses to these impacts and others such as from invasive species and perhaps aquaculture pose enormous research challenges.An overlay to complicate the research difficulties addressing these impacts is the uncertain magnitude of climate change, the effects of which have the potential to obscure the effects of fishing and other anthropogenic activities.Research will have to be an important component of developing appropriate management responses to address many of these impacts.Innovative approaches are required for collecting

Child marriage has been an age-long problem in Ghana’s quest of protecting the rights and development of young girls. Though there are various international and domestic legal frameworks to assist the Ghana government in taking proactive steps in fighting against child marriages, there are some deep-rooted cultural practices commemorated in some Ghanaian traditional communities that seem to derail the government’s efforts. This paper aims to analyze the Boekpayoo customary ceremony organized by the Nungua Traditional Council in Ghana at the Gborbu temple on the 30th of March 2024. It offers a deeper understanding of the appropriateness and legality of the Boekpayoo customary ceremony to show how Ghana struggles to end all forms of child or early marriage. This paper puts the customary ceremony under the lens of existing domestic and international legal frameworks and cultural anthropology perspectives. This paper has relied on and has been critically analyzed through secondary data from national and international legal instruments, cultural anthropology literature, and news reports. This study revealed that the procedure for the Boekpayoo ceremony, as well as the fitting appointment for occupying the position of Naa Yoomo Ayemuede, is legitimate, as it helps in the preservation and promotion of the place-identity history and culture of the Ga-Dangmes. However, the timing and selection of Naa Okromo need to be analyzed as they are not in accordance with the established national and international legal frameworks.

Despite international legal frameworks designed to protect them, the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh face a critical situation characterized by a severe lack of legal status and inadequate humanitarian aid. This research uses a qualitative approach to examine the gap between these international laws and their actual implementation, focusing specifically on the Rohingya crisis. The study identifies significant deficiencies in the application of international refugee law, particularly the failure to grant the Rohingya adequate legal recognition, which has led to systemic denial of basic human rights such as education, healthcare, and legal protection. The findings highlight the limitations of both international and national legal frameworks in addressing the statelessness of the Rohingya, exacerbating their vulnerability. This research concludes with strategic recommendations for reforming legal frameworks at both international and national levels to enhance the protection mechanisms for the Rohingya and similar vulnerable groups.

Wildlife trafficking threatens the existence of many plant and animal species and accelerates the destruction of wildlife, forests, and other natural resources. It contributes to environmental degradation, destroys unique natural habitats, and deprives many countries and their populations of scarce renewable resources. The more endangered a species becomes, the greater is the commercial value that is put on the remaining specimen, thereby increasing the incentive for further illegal activities. Preventing and supressing the illegal trade in wildlife, animal parts, and plants is presently not a priority in many countries. Despite the actual and potential scale and consequences, wildlife trafficking often remains overlooked and poorly understood. Wildlife and biodiversity related policies, laws, and their enforcement have, for the most part, not kept up with the changing levels and patterns of wildlife trafficking. Poorly developed legal frameworks, weak law enforcement, prosecutorial, and judicial practices have resulted in valuable wildlife and plant resources becoming threatened. The high demand for wildlife, animal parts, plants, and plant material around the world has resulted in criminal activities on a large scale. Considerably cheaper than legally sourced material, the illegal trade in fauna and flora offers opportunities to reap significant profits. Gaps in domestic and international control regimes, difficulties in identifying illegal commodities and secondary products, along with intricate trafficking routes make it difficult to effectively curtail the trade. Although several international and non-governmental organisations have launched initiatives aimed at bringing international attention to the problem of wildlife trafficking, political commitment and operational capacity to tackle this phenomenon are not commensurate to the scale of the problem. There is, to date, no universal framework to prevent and suppress this crime type and there is a lack of critical and credible expertise and scholarship on this phenomenon. As part of their joint teaching programme on transnational organised crime, the University of Queensland, the University of Vienna, and the University of Zurich examined the topic of wildlife trafficking in a year-long research course in 20182019. Students from the three universities researched selected topics and presented their findings in academic papers, some of which have been compiled in this volume. The chapters included in this v edited book address causes, characteristics, and actors of wildlife trafficking, analyse detection methods, and explore different international and national legal frameworks.

The article analyzes the national legal and regulatory framework in the field of socio-economic diagnosing of the major parameters and operation directions of the objects being diagnosed such as financial conditions, the threat of bankruptcy, solvency (credit status), and investment attractiveness. Based on the results obtained there are singled out, generalized and justified the key contradictions of national regulations governing principles of assessing the priority sectors of these objects operation. The importance of further development of the national legal and regulatory support of socio-economic diagnosing towards its unification in modern conditions of European integration is proved. In terms of revitalization of European integration processes in Ukraine and globalization processes in the world the importance of socio-economic diagnosing at all levels of national and international economies is increasing. In fact, successful establishment and further development of relationships between domestic and foreign partners at different levels (state authorities, financial, credit and insurance institutions, rating agencies, securities market participants, investors, intermediaries, contractors, businesses) require accurate, representative and objective database obtained through target diagnosing. Recently stakeholders have been primarily interested in socio-economic diagnosing of such aspects of particular entities as financial conditions, threat of bankruptcy, solvency, investment attractiveness etc. Target diagnosing is based on various techniques developed by the legislative authorities of Ukraine that are still being used to form special methodological guidelines for evaluating priority operation areas of the diagnosed objects. Obviously, the methodological provisions reflected in the current national legal and regulatory framework should be standardized and unified for all users in both domestic and international environment to ensure exclusive regulation of key principles of socio-economic diagnosing and unified interpretation of the diagnostic results. Unfortunately, at present in the national legal and regulatory framework there are many problems associated with discrepancies, inconsistencies and contradictions of certain diagnostic methods. Considering all the above, there arises the necessity to study current national legislation and regulatory materials to identify existing conflicts in the area of socio-economic diagnosing.